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This thesis is a study of multiple access schemes for satellite land mobile systems that provide a domestic or regional service to a large number of small terminals. Three orbit options are studied, namely the geostationary, elliptical (Molniya) and inclined circular orbits. These are investigated for various mobile applications and the choice of the Molniya orbit is justified for a U. K. system. Frequency, Time and Code Division Multiple Access (FDMA, TDMA and CDMA) are studied and their relative merits in the mobile environment are highlighted. A hybrid TDMA/FDMA structure is suggested for a large system. Reservation ALOHA schemes are appraised in a TDMA environment and an adaptive reservation multiple access protocol is proposed and analysed for a wide range of mobile communication traffic profiles. The system can cope with short and long data messages as well as voice calls. Various protocol options are presented and a target system having 100,000 users is considered. Analyses are presented for the steady state of protocols employing pure and slotted ALOHA and for the stabilty of the slotted variant, while simulation techniques were employed to validate the steady state analysis of the slotted ALOHA protocol and to analyse the stability problem of the pure ALOHA version. An innovative technique is put forward to integrate the reservation and the acquisition processes. It employs the geographical spread of the users to form part of the random delay in P-ALOHA. Finally an economic feasibility study is performed for the spacesegment. For costs of capital (r) less than 23 % the discounted payback period is less than the project's lifetime (10 years). At r- 8% the payback period is about 5.6 years, while the internal-rate-of-return is 22.2 %. The net present value at the end of the projects lifetime is £M 70 at r-8%.

With a new United States Army initiative to exploit commercially developed information technology, there is a heightened interest in using Internet protocols over the military's geosynchronous satellite links. TCP is the dominant Internet protocol used for reliable data exchange, but its own design limits performance when used over long delay network links such as satellites. Initially this research set out to compare TCP with another proposed protocol, the Satellite Transport Protocol (STP). However through a series of tests, we found that STP does not fulfill its claims of increased throughput over TCP and uncovered a flaw in STP's founding research. In addition, this thesis proposes and demonstrates novel performance enhancing techniques that significantly improve transport protocol throughput.

[pt] Neste trabalho, limites para a densidade de fluxo de potência equivalente produzida pelos lances de descida de sistemas de satélites nãogeoestacionários (não-GEO), operando na faixa de 3,7-4,2 GHz, são analisados. Estes limites visam proteger os receptores do Serviço Fixo por Satélite (FSS) das interferências produzidas por sistemas de satélites não geoestacionários, quando ambos operam na faixa de frequências considerada. A analise destes limites foi motivada pela Resolução 157 da Conferência Mundial de Radiocomunicações de 2015 (WRC-15), que ressalta a necessidade de estudos envolvendo aspectos técnicos e operacionais relativos à operação de sistemas não-GEO operando na faixa de frequências de 3,7 - 4,2 GHz de modo a permitir que esses sistemas possam operar nestas faixas de frequências assegurando, ao mesmo tempo, que os serviços primários existentes, entre eles o FSS, continuem protegidos. A importância do assunto fez com que este tópico fosse incluído na agenda da WRC-19. No trabalho, é inicialmente desenvolvida uma metodologia para a determinação de máscaras limitantes para a densidade de fluxo de potência equivalente produzida pelos lances de descida (epfd(descida)) de sistemas de satélites não-GEO. Esta metodologia foi utilizada na obtenção de duas máscaras baseadas, respectivamente, nos critérios de proteção das recomendações ITU-R S.1323 e ITU-R F.1495. Uma análise comparativa das máscaras de epfd(descida) obtidas foi feita considerando-se cinco constelações de satélites não-GEO do tipo Walker Delta, escolhidas adequadamente para cobrir um amplo conjunto de possibilidades. A análise utilizou, como base, o comportamento estatístico das margens associadas a cada uma das máscaras de epfd(descida) propostas. / [en] In this work, the limits for the equivalent power-flux density produced by the down-links of non-geostationary satellite systems (non-GSO), operating in the 3,7-4,2 GHz band are analyzed. These limits aim the protection of Fixed-Satellite Service (FSS) receivers, from the interferences produced by non-geostationary satellite systems, operating in the same frequency band. The analysis of these limits was motivated by Resolution 157 of the 2015 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-15), that recognized the need for studies on technical and operational aspects related to the operation of non-GSO systems operating in the 3,7-4,2 GHz frequency band, so that these systems can adequately operate in these frequency band while ensuring, at the same time, that the existing primary services, among them the FSS, remain protected. Due to its importance the topic was included in the agenda of the WRC-19. In this work, a methodology for the determination of limiting masks for the equivalent power-flux density generated by the down-links (epfd(down)) of non-GSO satellite systems is initially developed. This methodology was used to obtain two mask based, respectively, on the protection criteria of the ITU-R S.1323 and ITU-R F.1495 recommendations. A comparative analysis of the two obtained epfd(down) masks was made considering five Walker Delta type non-GSO satellite constellation, appropriately chosen to cover a wide set of possibilities. The analysis used, as a basis, the statistic behavior of the margins associated to each of the proposed epfd(down) masks.

[pt] Neste trabalho, os limites atuais de densidade de fluxo de potência do Artigo 21 do Regulamento de Radiocomunicações da UIT para sistemas não-GEO operando na banda 3.7-4.2 GHz são analizados. Estes limtes visam proteger os receptores do Serviço Fixo Terrestre, operando na mesma faixa de frequência, das interferências produzidas por sistemas de satélites não geoestacionários. A análise foi motivada pela Resolução 157 [1] da Conferência Mundial de Radiocomunicações de 2015, que reconheceu a necessidade de uma revisão do Artigo 21 para que sistemas não-GEO possam operar nestas faixas de frequências assegurando, ao mesmo tempo, que os serviços primários existentes continuem protegidos. Na análise, cinco estruturas de constelações de satélites não-GEO do tipo Walker Delta, adequadamente escolhidas, foram consideradas. Resultados mostraram que os atuais limtes de pfd podem impor restrições indevidas aos sistemas não-GEO operando nesta faixa. Assim, uma metodologia para investigar uma máscara limitante de pfd mais adequada é apresentada. A aplicação desta metodologia leva a uma máscara alternativa que se aproxima dos limites atuais de pfd para satélites geoestacionários quando o número de satélites no sistema interferente não-GEO é igual a um. Uma avaliação da máscara de pfd proposta mostra que ela não impõe restrições desnecessárias aos sistemas de satélites não-GEO. Isto, junto a outros fatos, indica que os limites de pfd propostos são, de fato, muito mais adequados do que os atuais. / [en] In this work, the current power-flux density limits in Article 21 of the ITU-R Radio Regulations for non-GSO systems operating in the 3.7-4.2 GHz band are analyzed. These limits aim the protection of Fixed Service receivers, operating in the same frequency band, from the interference produced by non-GSO satellite systems. The analysis was motivated by Resolution 157 [1] of the World Radiocommunication Conference 2015, that recognized the need for a revision of Article 21 with a view to enabling non-GSO systems to operate in these FSS frequency bands while ensuring that existing primary services are protected. In the analysis, five different Walker Delta type satellite constellation structures, adequately chosen, were considered. Results have shown that the current pfd limits may impose undue constraints to non-GSO systems operating in this band. Therefore, a methodology to investigate a more adequate pfd limiting mask is presented. The application of this methodology leads to an alternative mask that approaches the current pfd limits for the geostationary satellites when the number of satellites in the non-GSO interfering system is equal to one. An evaluation of the proposed pfd mask shows that it does not impose unnecessary constraints to the non-GSO satellite systems. This, along with other facts, indicates that the proposed pfd limits are, indeed, much more adequate than the current ones.

The number of man-made space objects is dramatically growing nowadays. The continuous monitoring and studying of these objects are necessary to keep their number under control and ensure safe space operations. With respect thereto, international guidelines recommend decongesting the most populated space regions from satellites arriving at the end of their operational lifetime by performing post-mission disposal strategies. In general, a satellite is considered to be functional if it is still performing periodic manoeuvres to stay within the orbital operation configuration. This study presents a promising method to detect historical in-plane manoeuvrers of satellites on a geostationary orbit (GEO). Since a manoeuvrer changes the orbital state of the spacecraft, its effect can be detected by comparing the observed data to a reference evolution. In this case, the  model is represented by the dynamical model STELA  based on a semi-analytical theory. The observed data is provided by the public American space object catalogue. The Two-line element (TLE) database contains the orbital state of each tracked object, however, not all six orbital parameters are interesting to study in terms of in- plane manoeuvrers. The evolution of the longitude and of the eccentricity vector is immediately affected by a manoeuvre that changes the shape or the size of an orbit. Within the longitude analysis, the manoeuvre epoch is estimated by focusing on the manoeuvre strategy. An operational spacecraft usually performs a manoeuvre as soon as the longitude motion threatens to violate the operational deadband. Consequently, the longitude evolution follows a parabolic motion. Two polynomial curves of second degree are laid over the observation: the first curve is derived from a simplified dynamical model and the second curve is directly obtained through a Least Squares (LS) fitting method. The discrepancy between the LS and physical fitted parabolas gives an indication on the quality of the input data, that is to say, of the TLEs. The detected manoeuvre epoch must be companioned by a confidential parameter that denotes the time range around the estimated epoch in which the manoeuvre is expected to have happened. The manoeuvre interval is then forwarded to the eccentricity analysis where the manoeuvrer epoch is estimated more precisely by studying the divergence between the observed and expected eccentricity vector evolution. The latter is propagated with STELA after having estimated the area-to-mass ratio that is needed in order to model the perturbation effects accurately upon which the performance of the dynamical reference model strongly depends. As soon as the observed eccentricity vector deviates significantly from the expected evolution, the epoch and the velocity ΔV of the manoeuvre can be recovered, too.

La thèse a pour objet la démonstration de l’évolution et de l’adaptation du système international de répartition et de distribution des ressources de l’espace extra-atmosphérique à la nature même de ces ressources dans un premier temps et à l’évolution des utilisations qui en ont été faites dans un second. Ces modifications factuelles se traduisent par des adaptations institutionnelles, juridiques. Elles s’expliquent certes par les évolutions des moyens de communication, par le besoin grandissant des acteurs en charge de missions de service public d’abord, puis des sociétés de droit privées ensuite, de fournir de nouveaux services au plus grand nombre. Au sein des ressources de l’espace extra-atmosphérique, figure en premier lieu le spectre hertzien, à savoir les bandes hertziennes sur lesquelles il sera possible de transmettre un signal et de mettre en place un service particulier. Ce « spectre », à l’instar du spectre lumineux, est fini et présente diverses caractéristiques, fonction de la partie de ce dernier dont il s’agit. Les services d’astronomie, de géolocalisation, de radio transmission ou encore de météorologie verront leur efficacité accrue sur certaines fréquences hertziennes, et ne pourront fonctionner proprement sur d’autres. La disponibilité de ces fréquences est donc limitée, et celles-ci entrent en conséquence dans la définition des ressources rares. Entrent également dans la catégorie des ressources qualifiées de rares, les orbites terrestres sur lesquelles il est possible de placer des satellites de communication à rendement optimum. Celles-ci sont naturellement limitées par une restriction physique matérielle, à savoir la place qu’il leur sera attribué, à la différence des ressources hertziennes, quantifiées via un spectre immatériel. Leur caractéristique de ressource naturelle rare / limitée a contraint les acteurs internationaux, premiers utilisateurs, à définir des principes pour le partage, la répartition et l’utilisation desdites ressources. Cependant, et si les principes développés initialement sont toujours d’actualité, le mode de répartition préconisé à l’origine, à savoir « premier arrivé, premier servi » a été le vecteur de nombreuses distorsions, voire non-respect flagrant, des principes précités. En effet, la privatisation des activités spatiales, notamment des activités de télécommunications, ainsi que des organisations internationales initialement chargées de la bonne coordination de l’utilisation de ces ressources, telle qu’étudiée ici, fût suscitée par le potentiel lucratif desdites activités, accompagnée par leur libéralisation parfois normative, et par des besoins croissants pour des types de technologies sans cesse renouvelés. Elle a toutefois dû s’effectuer en coordination avec les instances internationales chargées de la répartition et de la régulation des ressources hertziennes au niveau mondial, et plus précisément de l’Union internationale des télécommunications. C’est cette organisation qui constitue le centre de gravité de notre étude. Elle est un objet à part, représentatif de ce que doit être une organisation internationale moderne, évolutive, étant paradoxalement l’organisation internationale rattachée aux Nations-Unies la plus ancienne, puisque fondée en 1865 en tant qu’Union internationale de la télégraphie. L’adaptation en tant que clé de l’évolution, comme nous l’avions mentionné, aux usages des nouvelles technologies mais également à la restriction de ressources naturelles constantes en nombre, et pourtant de plus en plus sollicitées. Ceci constituera le troisième point de notre développement : l’étude des mécanismes internationaux créés pour pallier aux conséquences néfastes de la surréservation de ces ressources à fort potentiel lucratif, pourtant considérées comme patrimoine commun de l’Humanité, et à ce titre ne devant théoriquement pas faire l’objet de marchandisation. / The thesis aims at demonstrating the evolution and adaptation of the international system for distribution of the resources of outer space to the very nature of these resources, at first, and to the evolution of uses that have been made, in a second time. These factual changes translate into institutional and legal adaptations. They are certainly explained by the evolutions of the means of communication, by the growing need of actors in charge of public service missions first, then of private companies, to provide new services to the greatest number.Among the resources of outer space is the radio spectrum, namely the radio bands on which it will be possible to transmit a signal and set up a particular service. This "spectrum", like the luminous spectrum, is finite and has various characteristics, depending on the part of the latter. The services of astronomy, geolocation, radio transmission or even meteorology will see their efficiency increased on certain radio frequencies, and will not be able to work properly on others. The availability of these frequencies is therefore limited and they undoubtedly fall within the definition of scarce resources. Also included in the category of qualified scarce resources are the earth orbits on which it is possible to place communication satellites with optimum efficiency. These are naturally limited by a physical restriction, namely the place that they will be allocated, unlike radio resources, quantified via an intangible spectrum. Their characteristic as a rare / limited natural resource constraint has forced the international actors, first users, to define principles for the sharing, distribution and use of these resources. However, and while the principles developed initially are still current, the method of distribution advocated at the outset, namely "first arrived, first served", has been the vector of numerous distortions, or even flagrant non-respect, of the aforementioned principles.Indeed, the privatization of space activities, in particular telecommunications activities, as well as the international organizations initially responsible for the proper coordination of the use of these resources, as studied in our thesis, was prompted by the lucrative potential of these activities, accompanied sometimes by their normative liberalization, and by growing needs for constantly renewed types of technology. It must, however, have been carried out in coordination with international bodies responsible for the allocation and regulation of radio resources at the global level, specifically the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). This organization is the center of gravity of our study. It is a separate object, representative of what should be a modern, evolving international organization, being paradoxically the oldest international organization attached to the United Nations, since it was founded in 1865 as the International Telegraphic Union. The thesis finally develops adaptation as a key to evolution, as we have mentioned, to the use of new technologies but also to the restriction of natural resources, which are constant in number and yet increasingly solicited. This constitutes our third point: the study of international mechanisms developed to mitigate the adverse consequences of overbooking of these resources with a high lucrative potential, yet considered as common heritage of the Humanity, and in this capacity that should theoretically not be subject to any commodification.