NMDARs are indispensable for developmental plasticity in the mammalian brain, but their roles in vivo are difficult to ascertain as NMDAR-knockouts are lethal. To circumvent this problem, we utilized NR1-knockdown mice to examine plasticity at the calyx of Held-MNTB synapse in the auditory brainstem. Previous work shows NMDARs at this synapse are rapidly down-regulated following the onset of hearing (P12), leading to the hypothesis that transient NMDAR expression is indispensable for modulating functional and morphological remodelling during development. We tested this by performing electrophysiological recordings, fluorescence tracing in vitro, and auditory brainstem responses in vivo, and surprisingly found that reducing postsynaptic NMDARs appears to promote functional maturation via presynaptic mechanisms in the absence of morphological and acoustic transmission differences in the mature calyx. This suggests a novel role for NMDARs to function as an activity-dependent control for setting the pace of consolidation and maturation in the calyx of Held synapse.

Neural activity within the brain underlies complex behavior that allows us to interact with our environment. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is believed to mediate appropriate behavioral responses by integrating emotional and cognitive information about external stimuli. If this understanding is correct, then neural activity within the ACC must therefore correlate with behavioral output in response to external experience. The aim of this thesis is to bridge mechanisms identified in vitro with behaviors observed in vivo to determine the neural substrates of ACC mediated behavior. This thesis focuses on glutamatergic receptors that have been established as mediators of excitatory transmission in the ACC. Through a combination of behavioral, pharmacological, biochemical, and electrophysiological methods, this thesis examined how behaviors observed in mouse models of fear learning, chronic pain, and itch correspond with in vitro observations of ACC neuronal activity. Three sets of experiments are presented. The first set investigated cortical LTP-like mechanisms, and assessed whether they could mediate fear learning. These sets of experiments provide in vivo evidence that trace fear learning requires rapid, NMDA receptor dependent, cortical AMPA receptor insertion. The second set of experiments investigated the contribution of forebrain CREB-mediated transcription in behavioral manifestations of chronic pain. These experiments show that forebrain overexpression of CREB is sufficient to enhance mechanical allodynia in animal models of chronic inflammatory or neuropathic pain. Lastly, the final set of experiments show that pruritogen-induced scratching corresponds with enhanced excitatory transmission in the ACC through KA receptor modulation of inhibitory circuitry. Through investigations of multiple behaviors linked to ACC activity, this thesis presents evidence that manifestations of behavior can be observed at the molecular level, and indicates that molecular mechanisms involved in ACC synaptic activity are a good target for translational research into pathological conditions that are related to abnormal ACC activity.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Methylmercury (MeHg) is a highly toxic environmental contaminant that can be accumulated on several tissues, inducing cellular dysfunction on various organs, especially in the central nervous system (CNS). The mechanisms involved in the uptake, accumulation and toxicity of mercury (Hg) remain unclear. However, it has been suggested that the neurotoxicity mediated by MeHg induces changes in both glutamatergic system and calcium homeostasis. Indeed, the literature reports that calcium per se is able in inducing cellular damage. Thus, mercury and calcium can exert distinct or linked toxic effect that lead to mitochondrial and cellular dysfunction. The purpose of this study was to analyze the mechanisms of uptake and accumulation of mercury on liver slices exposed to MeHg or MeHg-Cysteine complex, as well as to compare the mitochondrial and cellular toxicity caused by both forms of MeHg. Moreover, this work examined the role of glutamatergic system on the toxicity mediated by MeHg in slices of cerebral cortex from rats and the effects of calcium exposure in mitochondria sustained with different energetic substrates. Our results showed that the mercury uptake was higher in the slices exposed to the MeHg-Cys complex that MeHg exposed slices. Indeed, the pretreatment with methionine (Met) (for 15 min.) reduced Hg uptake in liver slices. Likewise, mitochondria isolated of liver slices showed similar effect on Hg uptake. Parameters as free radical generation; oxygen consumption and mitochondrial function/Cell viability were more affected by MeHg-Cys complex than MeHg alone. Met pre-treatment was effective in preventing the MeHg or MeHg-Cys-induced toxicity in both liver slices and mitochondria. In cortical brain slices, the neurotoxicity induced by MeHg was verified only at higher concentration tested and after 2 or 5 hours of exposure. In addition, compounds that potentially modulate glutamatergic system (MK-801, guanosine, organo selenium compounds) were effective in preventing the MeHg-induced free radical generation. In mitochondria isolated from liver, Ca2+ caused an inhibition on the complex I activity; however, calcium did not alter the mitochondrial complex II activity. At low concentration, calcium exposure caused a small decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) in Malate/Glutamate (Ma/Glu) and Succinate (Succ)-supported mitochondria. On the order hand, higher calcium levels were associated with a total ΔΨm loss in both Mal/Glu and Succ-oxidizing mitochondria. The mitochondrial redox state (NADP(H) and GSH pool) and oxygen consumption were extremely affected by calcium exposure only in Succ-supported mitochondria. Indeed, calcium caused an increase in free radical generation in mitochondria sustained with complex II substrate when compared to Mal/Glu-supported mitochondria. Taken together, our data collaborate to understanding the molecular mechanisms involved on the toxicology of mercury and calcium and consequently provide basis for further investigations on the role of Ca2+ and mercury in mitochondrial dysfunctions. In addition, the results obtained here may contribute to the discovery of new therapeutic agents capable of preventing or minimizing the damage induced by MeHg intoxication. / O metilmercúrio (MeHg) é um contaminante ambiental altamente tóxico que pode ser bioacumulado em diferentes tecidos e consequentemente induzir disfunções celulares em diversos órgãos, especialmente no sistema nervoso central (SNC). Os mecanismos pelos quais o mercúrio (Hg) entra nos tecidos, se acumula e causa toxicidade em células e organelas ainda não se encontram totalmente elucidados. No entanto, estudos têm sugerido que a neurotoxicidade mediada pelo MeHg envolve alterações no sistema glutamatérgico e na homeostase do cálcio. Por outro lado, sabe-se que o cálcio (Ca2+) per se causa efeitos tóxicos nas células e principalmente em mitocôndrias. Assim o Hg e o Ca2+ podem induzir efeitos distintos ou interligados, os quais geralmente culminam com disfunção mitocondrial e morte celular. Com base nestes parâmetros, o presente trabalho visa elucidar os possíveis mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na captação e no acúmulo de Hg em fatias hepáticas expostas a forma livre de MeHg+ ou à forma complexada MeHg-Cisteína (MeHg-Cys), bem como, relacionar estes aspectos com a toxicidade celular e mitocondrial causada por ambas as formas de MeHg. Também foi alvo deste estudo a investigação do papel do sistema glutamatérgico na toxicidade mediada pelo MeHg em fatias de córtex cerebral de ratos e os efeitos do cálcio em mitocôndrias isoladas e sustentadas com diferentes substratos energéticos. Com relação à captação de Hg, nossos resultados mostram que fatias expostas ao complexo MeHg-Cys acumulam mais Hg que fatias expostas ao MeHg sozinho. Também foi observado que o pré-tratamento (15 min) com metionina (Met) reduziu significativamente a captação e o acúmulo de Hg nas fatias. Resultados similares foram verificados em mitocôndrias isoladas dessas fatiais. Nos parâmetros bioquímicos: geração de radicais livres, consumo de oxigênio e viabilidade celular/atividade mitocondrial, o complexo MeHg-Cys causou efeitos mais tóxicos quando comparado com o MeHg sozinho. O pré-tratamento com Met foi efetivo em prevenir as alterações mediadas por ambas as formas de mercúrio testadas. Os efeitos neurotóxicos do MeHg em fatias de córtex cerebral foram observados apenas nas maiores concentrações usadas e após 2 ou 5 horas de exposição. A utilização de compostos que possivelmente modulam a homeostase glutamatérgica (MK-801, guanosina e compostos orgânicos de selênio) preveniram os efeitos induzidos por MeHg na geração de radicais livres. Os efeitos do cálcio foram analisados em mitocôndrias isoladas e sustentadas com o substrato energético do complexo mitocondrial I: Malato/Glutamato (Mal/Glu) e do complexo II Succinato (Succ). Os resultados obtidos mostram que o cálcio inibiu a atividade complexo I; mas não alterou a atividade complexo II. Em baixas concentrações o cálcio causou uma pequena diminuição no potencial de membrana (ΔΨm) nas mitocôndrias sustentadas com Mal/Glu ou Succ. Por outro lado, uma perda total do potencial foi observada quando as mitocôndrias, sustentadas com ambos os substratos, foram expostas a altas concentrações de cálcio. A exposição ao cálcio causou uma redução no potencial redox (conteúdo NADP(H) e GSH) e no consumo de oxigênio nas mitocôndrias sustentadas com Succ quando comparado com as que receberam Mal/Glu. A geração de radicais livres foi aumentada em mitocôndrias expostas ao cálcio e sustentadas com Succ quando comparadas com as mitocôndrias sustentadas com substrato do complexo I. De forma geral, nossos resultados colaboram para a elucidação dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na citotoxicidade induzida por MeHg e por cálcio, bem como para um melhor entendimento sobre o papel destes elementos na indução de disfunção mitocondrial. Além disso, os resultados obtidos poderão contribuir para a descoberta de novos agentes terapêuticos usados para prevenir ou minimizar danos teciduais associados à intoxicação humana por MeHg.

La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) constitue la forme la plus commune de démence associée à une perte de mémoire et caractérisée par l’accumulation de plaques extracellulaires contenant des peptides bêta-amyloïdes (Aβ). Des études ont révélé une perte plus importante de synapses que ne peut l’expliquer la mort neuronale, suggérant qu’un déficit synaptique serait présent dès les stades initiaux de la maladie. Bien que le peptide Aβ fût identifié comme un composé des plaques amyloïdes extracellulaires dans les années 1980, des études plus récentes ont mis en évidence la présence intracellulaire de ce peptide. L’accumulation d’Aβ intracellulaire serait un événement antérieur à la formation des plaques séniles dans la pathogenèse de la MA et corrèlerait mieux avec les perturbations de mémoire et d’apprentissage caractéristiques de cette maladie. De plus, des données mettent en évidence la responsabilité des formes oligomériques solubles d’Aβ (Aβo) dans les évènements précoces de la MA. Ce projet vise à mieux comprendre et caractériser l’impact extracellulaire et intracellulaire des peptides Aβo et le lien fonctionnel de leurs effets sur les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans les processus mnésiques affectés dans la maladie d’Alzheimer. Dans ce contexte, il nous a paru essentiel d’étudier l’impact extracellulaire et intracellulaire des oligomères d’Aβ sur la transmission synaptique. Ces travaux ont été effectués sur culture primaire de neurones corticaux et sur tranche de cortex de souris par des méthodes d’électrophysiologie via la technique de patch-clamp.Nous avons analysé la fréquence et l’amplitude des courants post-synaptiques excitateurs spontanés (sEPSC) des principaux récepteurs impliqués dans la transmission glutamatergique et dans les mécanismes moléculaires à la base de la mémoire et de l’apprentissage : les récepteurs AMPA et NMDA. Nos données montrent que les peptides Aβo dans le milieu extracellulaire (eAβo) ou dans le milieu intracellulaire (iAβo), affectent spécifiquement les courants associés à l’activation des récepteurs NMDA au niveau postsynaptique sans altérer les courants AMPA. L’application dans le milieu extracellulaire d’Aβo réduit l’amplitude des courants NMDA. Ce phénomène n’est pas lié à la pénétration du peptide Aβo dans les neurones mais à l’activation par l’Aβo de la voie amyloïdogénique induisant une accumulation intrasynaptique d’Aβo responsable de la réduction des courants NMDA.L’ensemble de ces données suggère que l’Aβo perturbe le processing d’APP menant à une production intracellulaire d’Aβo responsable de la réduction de la transmission glutamatergique NMDA-dépendante. Une étape essentielle afin d’améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires qui sont à la base des altérations synaptiques glutamatergiques dans la MA est d’approfondir le lien fonctionnel entre les effets extracellulaire et intracellulaire des peptides Aβo. / Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia associated with memory loss and characterized by an accumulation of extracellular plaques composed of amyloid-beta peptides (Aβ). Studies have revealed a greater loss of synapses than the neuronal death can explain, suggesting that a synaptic deficit would be present from the early stages of the disease. Although the Aβ peptide has been identified as a component of the extracellular amyloid plaques in the 1980s, recent studies have highlighted the intracellular presence of this peptide. The intracellular accumulation of Aβ precedes the appearance of amyloid plaques in the pathogenesis of AD and seems to be correlated with the memory and learning troubles, characteristic of this disease. Moreover, some data highlight the responsibility of the soluble oligomeric Aβ form (Aβo) in the early events of AD. This project aims to better understand and characterize the extracellular and intracellular impact of Aβo peptides and the functional link of their effects on the molecular mechanisms involved in memory processes affected in AD. In this context, it was essential to study the extracellular and intracellular impact of Aβ oligomers on synaptic transmission. This work was carried out on cultures of primary cortical neurons and mouse cortex slices using electrophysiological methods via the patch-clamp technique.We have recorded the spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSC) frequency and amplitude from the main receptors implicated in the glutamatergic transmission and in the molecular mechanisms underlying memory and learning processes: AMPA and NMDA receptors. Our data show that external or internal application of Aβo peptides affect specifically the currents associated with NMDA receptors at a postsynaptic level without altering the AMPA currents. The external application of Aβo reduces the NMDA current amplitude. This phenomenon is not due to the penetration of the Aβo peptide into the neurons but rather to the activation of the amyloïdogenic pathway by Aβo inducing an intracellular accumulation of Aβo responsible of the NMDA current reduction.All these data suggest that Aβo perturb the processing of APP leading to an intracellular Aβo production responsible of the glutamatergic NMDA-dependent transmission reduction. An essential step in order to improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the altered glutamatergic synaptic alterations found in AD is to deepen the functional link between the extracellular and intracellular effects of the Aβo peptides.

L’autisme et la déficience intellectuelle (DI) définissent un spectre de troubles neuro-développementaux à composante génétique significative et impliquant au moins 1% de la population générale. Suite à l’identification de mutations dans les gènes PTCHD1 et GRID1 chez des sujets avec autisme et/ou DI, nous avons étudié leur rôle neuro-développemental par des approches translationnelles en modèle cellulaire et/ou animal Nos résultats montrent que PTCHD1 est un nouveau récepteur post-synaptique dont l'inactivation chez la souris Ptchd1-/y induit des troubles comportementaux et un dysfonctionnement des synapses glutamatergiques. En outre, PTCHD1 interagit avec les protéines PSD95, SAP102 (protéome postsynaptique glutamatergique), et RAC1 (cytosquelette d'actine et voie RhoGTPase). Concernant le gène GRID1, l’étude fonctionnelle in vitro d’une mutation homozygote (Arg161His) associée à une DI a révélé des altérations de la morphologie neuronale et synaptique, et souligne le rôle essentiel de ce récepteur sur la formation des terminaisons présynaptiques excitatrices. Ces données fournissent de nouveaux éléments sur les mécanismes physiopathologiques impliqués dans l’autisme et la DI, soulignant le rôle essentiel des récepteurs de la synapse excitatrice glutamatergique dans la cognition et la communication. / Autism and intellectual disability (ID) define a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders with a significant genetic component and involving at least 1% of the general population. Following the identification of mutations in the PTCHD1 and GRID1 genes in subjects with autism and/or ID, we sought to study their respective neurodevelopmental role by translational approaches in cell and/or animal models. Our results show that PTCHD1 is a novel post-synaptic receptor whose inactivation in Ptchd1-/y mice induces behavioral disorders and dysfunction of glutamatergic synapses. In addition, PTCHD1 interacts with PSD95, SAP102 (glutamatergic postsynaptic proteome), and RAC1 (actin cytoskeleton and RhoGTPase pathway) proteins. The in vitro functional study of a homozygous mutation (Arg161His) associated with ID revealed alterations in neuronal and synaptic morphology and underlines the essential role of this receptor in the formation of excitatory presynaptic terminations. These data provide new insights into the physiopathological mechanisms involved in autism and ID, highlighting the essential role of glutamatergic excitatory synapse receptors in cognition and communication.

A evolução da vida na terra foi possível graças ao desenvolvimento de mecanismos temporais precisos capazes de ajustar processos fisiológicos que ocorriam no interior do organismo com os ciclos ambientais, promovendo assim, ganhos na capacidade adaptativa e comportamental desses indivíduos. A retina exerce função de suma importância nesse processo através da percepção da informação fótica que possibilita o ajuste dos ritmos circadianos. Nesse tecido, o glutamato apresenta um importante papel tanto na transmissão da informação fótica direcionada ao processo de formação de imagem quanto nos ajustes dos relógios biológicos. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar como o glutamato, aplicado por períodos diferentes (6 e 12h), é capaz de modular a expressão dos genes de relógio na retina de Gallus gallus. Através de diferentes protocolos que envolveram a administração de glutamato na concentração de 100μM por 6 e 12 horas e em diferentes repetições (1 e 3 pulsos) avaliou-se através de PCR quantitativo a expressão dos genes Clock, Per2 e Bmal1. Os diferentes genes de relógio na retina de Gallus gallus apresentam diferentes respostas frente às trocas de meio e frente ao tratamento com o glutamato. O gene Clock responde com ativação da transcrição para ambos os tratamentos, de forma dependente da repetição dos estímulos. Já para o gene Per2 o tratamento com glutamato impõe uma oscilação de expressão com um ritmo ultradiano, enquanto que as trocas de meio não determinam alterações na transcrição. A expressão do gene Bmal1 não é afetada nem por trocas de meio, nem por glutamato. Novos estudos devem ser fomentados no sentido de se elucidar as vias pelas quais o glutamato leva ao perfil de oscilação observado e qual o mecanismo pelo qual a repetição de trocas de meio atua como sinalizador para o estabelecimento da sincronização celular / The evolution of life on earth was possible thanks to the development of precise temporal mechanisms to adjust physiological processes to environmental cycles, thus promoting gains in the individual adaptive and behavioral ability. The retina plays a very important role of paramount importance in this process through the perception of photic information that allows the adjustment of circadian rhythms. In this tissue, glutamate functions in the transmission of photic information directed to both image formation and biological clock entrainment. The aim of this study was to evaluate how glutamate, applied for different periods (6 and 12h), is able to modulate the expression of the clock genes in the retina of Gallus gallus. Using different protocols involving the administration of 100μM glutamate for 6 and 12 hours and with different repetitions (1 and 3 pulses) the expression of Clock, Per2 and Bmal1 genes was evaluated by quantitative PCR. Clock gene responds with activation of transcription to both treatments depending on the repetition of the stimulus. As for Per2 gene, glutamate treatment imposes an oscillation with an ultradian expression rhythm, whereas medium changes do not affect its transcription. The expression of Bmal1 gene is not affected by either medium changes or glutamate. Further studies should be encouraged in order to elucidate the pathways by which glutamate leads to observed oscillation profile, and which mechanism triggered by the repetition of medium changes acts as signal to establish cell synchronization

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting social behaviors. ASD affects 1 in 59 children with males affected more frequently. ASD is postulated to result from excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission imbalances. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling affects ASD by influencing synaptogenesis, plasticity, and survival. Studying early in-utero neuropathological changes within ASD requires the use of animal models. Expression of BDNF-associated genes were analyzed within laser capture microdissected pyramidal neurons from the anterior cingulate cortex of male and female BTBR and valproic acid mouse models. No expression differences were found in any gene comparing the three groups. Gender comparisons did identify differences in NTRK2 and EFNB2. Significant correlations of gene expression were identified for male NTRK2 with EFNB2 and GRIN1 and EFNB2 with GRIN1 and female BDNF with GRIN1 expressions (p

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第20247号 / 医博第4206号 / 新制||医||1020(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 伊佐 正, 教授 鈴木 茂彦, 教授 高橋 淳 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

No / Activity-dependent gene transcription and protein synthesis underlie many forms of learning-related synaptic plasticity. At excitatory glutamatergic synapses, the immediate early gene product Arc/ Arg3.1 couples synaptic activity to postsynaptic endocytosis of AMPA-type glutamate receptors. Although the mechanisms for Arc induction have been described, little is known regarding the molecular machinery that terminates Arc function. Here, we demonstrate that the RING domain ubiquitin ligase Triad3A/RNF216 ubiquitinates Arc, resulting in its rapid proteasomal degradation. Triad3A associates with Arc, localizes to clathrin-coated pits, and is associated with endocytic sites in dendrites and spines. In the absence of Triad3A, Arc accumulates, leading to the loss of surface AMPA receptors. Furthermore, loss of Triad3A mimics and occludes Arc-dependent forms of synaptic plasticity. Thus, degradation of Arc by clathrin-localized Triad3A regulates the availability of synaptic AMPA receptors and temporally tunes Arc-mediated plasticity at glutamatergic synapses. / A final draft copy of this article is not yet available.

Les neurones pyramidaux de la région CA3 de l'hippocampe présentent une diversité morphologique, physiologique, biochimique, mais aussi fonctionnelle. Une partie des caractéristiques des neurones étant acquise pendant le développement, nous avons formulé l'hypothèse que la diversité morpho-fonctionnelle des neurones pyramidaux serait déterminée aux stades embryonnaires. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons utilisé des souris transgéniques pour lesquelles l'expression d'un marqueur fluorescent (GFP) est conditionnée par la date de neurogenèse des neurones glutamatergiques. Nous avons enregistré l'activité des neurones en imagerie calcique et montré que les neurones pyramidaux nés le plus tôt déchargent pendant la phase d'initiation des activités épileptiformes générées par le blocage pharmacologique de la transmission GABAergique rapide. De plus, nous montrons que ces neurones précoces possèdent des propriétés morpho-physiologiques distinctes. Enfin, nous montrons que la stimulation de neurones pyramidaux nés tôt peut générer des activités épileptiformes à des stades immatures lorsqu'ils sont stimulés en groupe, et à des stades juvéniles lorsqu'ils sont stimulés individuellement. Ainsi nous démontrons qu'il existe un lien entre la date de neurogenèse et les propriétés morpho-fonctionnelles des neurones pyramidaux de CA3. / There is increasing evidence that CA3 pyramidal cells are biochemically, electrophysiologically, morphologically and functionally diverse. As most of these properties are acquired during development, we hypothesized that the heterogeneity of the morphofunctionnal properties of pyramidal cells could be determined at the early stages of life. To test this hypothesis, we used a transgenic mouse line in which we glutamatergic cells are labelled with GFP according to their birth date. Using calcium imaging, we recorded multineuron activity in hippocampal slices and show that early generated pyramidal neurons fire during the build-up phase of epileptiform activities generated in the absence of fast GABAergic transmission. Moreover, we show that early generated pyramidal neurons display distinct morpho-physiological properties. Finally, we demonstrate that early generated neurons can generate epileptiform activities when stimulated as assemblies at immature stages, and when stimulated individually at juvenile stages. Thus we suggest a link between the date of birth and the morpho-functional properties of CA3 pyramidal neurons.