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The emerging evidence on the interconnectedness between the gut microbiome and host metabolism has led to a paradigm shift in the study of metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes with implications on both underlying pathophysiology and potential treatment. Mounting preclinical and clinical evidence of gut microbiota shifts, increased intestinal permeability in metabolic disease, and the critical positioning of the intestinal barrier at the interface between environment and internal milieu have led to the rekindling of the “leaky gut” concept. Although increased circulation of surrogate markers and directly measurable intestinal permeability have been linked to increased systemic inflammation in metabolic disease, mechanistic models behind this phenomenon are underdeveloped. Given repeated observations of microorganisms in several tissues with congruent phylogenetic findings, we review current evidence on these unanticipated niches, focusing specifically on the interaction between gut permeability and intestinal as well as extra-intestinal bacteria and their joint contributions to systemic inflammation and metabolism. We further address limitations of current studies and suggest strategies drawing on standard techniques for permeability measurement, recent advancements in microbial culture independent techniques and computational methodologies to robustly develop these concepts, which may be of considerable value for the development of prevention and treatment strategies.

Le cancer colorectal (CCR) est le 3ème plus diagnostiqué au Canada. Son traitement implique une résection chirurgicale du côlon ou du rectum, et une reconnexion des deux bouts intestinaux pour rétablir la continuité gastrointestinale. Cette reconnexion, appelée « anastomose », peut ne pas bien guérir chez jusqu’à 30% des patients, ce qui mène à une complication morbide et mortelle appelée « fuite anastomotique ». En plus de diminuer la survie et la qualité de vie, la fuite est possiblement associée à une récidive accrue du cancer pour des raisons qui demeurent obscures. Malgré des progrès techniques importants dans les dernières décennies, les taux de fuite n’ont pas significativement diminué, et sa survenue demeure hautement imprévisible. Des données récentes ont suggéré que le microbiote intestinal, ou la collection de microorganismes dans l’intestin, peut influencer le processus de guérison après la chirurgie, mais l’évidence sur cette relation reste faible. Les études suivantes visaient donc à évaluer le lien causal entre le microbiote, la fuite anastomotique le CCR. En utilisant des échantillons de selles collectés avant la chirurgie de 18 patients avec CCR (9 avec fuite et 9 sans fuite), on a évalué le rôle causal du microbiote humain chez des souris assujetties à une greffe de microbiote fécal (GMF) puis une chirurgie colique. On a trouvé que la GMF avec des échantillons de patients avec fuite a entrainé chez la souris une mauvaise guérison anastomotique, un affaiblissement de la matrice extracellulaire dans la plaie colique, et une inflammation accrue localement. On a identifié 2 souches bactériennes, Parabacteroides goldsteinii kh35 et Alistipes onderdonkii kh33, qui influençaient la guérison anastomotique, la 1ère positivement et la 2ème négativement. Ces souches modulaient l’inflammation dans la muqueuse colique, avec P. goldsteinii exerçant un effet anti-inflammatoire et A. onderdonkii un effet pro-inflammatoire. En utilisant des échantillons de muqueuses collectés de patients avant la complétion de l’anastomose, on a trouvé avec une analyse multiplex que les patients présentant une fuite avaient des niveaux basaux plus élevés des macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein 2 et interleukin-17A/F, et que le microbiote de ces patients entraine une augmentation similaire de ces cytokines pro-inflammatoires dans l’intestin des souris. Pour corroborer l’hypothèse que les patients présentant une fuite après la chirurgie avaient des niveaux basaux plus élevés d’inflammation intestinale de bas-grade induite par le microbiote, on a quantifié 9 cytokines dans la muqueuse colorectale de 77 patients avec CCR, pami lesquels 13 ont présenté une fuite après la chirurgie. Les 9 cytokines étaient plus élevées chez les patients ayant développé une fuite. On a exploré des marqueurs inflammatoires potentiels dans les selles, et qui peuvent être utilisés comme des biomarqueurs de dépistage avant la chirurgie, et avons identifié la calprotectine et la lipocaline-2 comme étant significativement différentes entre les patients présentant, ou pas, une fuite anastomotique. Ensuite, on a exploré si des métabolites bactériens peuvent être utilisés pour améliorer la guérison anastomotique. Les acides-gras à courte chaine (AGCCs) sont produits dans le côlon après la fermentation bactérienne de fibres alimentaires. On a ainsi testé si une supplémentation chez la souris avec de l’inuline ou des galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), deux oligosaccharides fermentables, peut améliorer la guérison. On a trouvé que l’inuline et le GOS ont augmenté les niveaux du bénéfique AGCC butyrate, amélioré la guérison anastomotique, favorisé la réparation épithéliale, la déposition du collagène et la barrière intestinale. Enfin, puisque le butyrate est connu pour son effet anticancérigène via une activation peroxysome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), on a investigué la relation entre l’amélioration de la guérison intestinale postopératoire avec l’inuline et le 5-aminosalicylate (5-ASA), un activateur de PPAR-γ, et la récidive du CCR. Une revue de la survie postopératoire de patients avec CCR ayant, ou pas, présenté une fuite a été effectuée. L’effet d’une supplémentation alimentaire avec de l’inuline ou du 5-ASA sur les tumeurs anastomotiques a été évalué chez des souris subissant une chirurgie colique. L’inuline et le 5-ASA ont été aussi évalués dans un modèle murin de métastases hépatiques où les cellules de CCR étaient inoculées chirurgicalement dans la rate. Les patients présentant une fuite présentaient une survie globale et oncologique moindre que les patients sans fuite. Une mauvaise guérison anastomotique chez la souris a entrainé des tumeurs anastomotiques et péritonéales plus volumineuses. L’inuline et le 5-ASA ont renforcé la barrière intestinale et prévenu les tumeurs anastomotiques et dissémination métastatique chez la souris. Ces trouvailles renforcent l’hypothèse que prévenir la fuite améliore les issues oncologiques des patients avec CCR, et ouvre la voie à des essais cliniques où des interventions modifiant le microbiote seraient utilisées pour favoriser la guérison et diminuer la récidive du cancer. En résumé, on a démontré pour la première fois le lien causal entre le microbiote intestinal préopératoire et la guérison anastomotique chez les patients avec CCR. On a aussi identifié des biomarqueurs potentiels qui peuvent être utilisés en pratique pour détecter l’inflammation subclinique de bas-grade induite par le microbiote pour prédire la guérison avant la chirurgie. On a aussi démontré que le microbiote et PPAR-γ peuvent être modulés avec des oligosaccharides fermentables pour améliorer la guérison, renforcer la barrière intestinale et prévenir la récidive du cancer. / Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most diagnosed cancer in Canada. Its treatment involves a surgical resection of the colon or rectum, and a reconnection of the remaining bowel segments to re-establish gastrointestinal continuity. This reconnection, termed “anastomosis”, may fail to heal and leak in up to 30% of patients, which leads to a morbid and mortal complication called “anastomotic leak” (AL). In addition to decreasing survival and quality of life, AL may be linked to higher cancer recurrence for reasons that remain unclear. Despite significant technical progress over the last decades, the rates of AL have not significantly decreased, and its occurrence remains highly unpredictable. Recent data have suggested that the gut microbiota, or the collection of microorganisms in the gut, may influence the healing process after surgery, but evidence on this relation remains weak. The following studies aimed therefore at assessing the causal link between the gut microbiota, AL, and CRC in patients undergoing surgery. Using fecal samples collected before surgery from 18 patients with CRC (9 with AL and 9 without AL), we assessed the causal role of the human microbiota in mice subjected to fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) then colonic surgery. We found that FMT from AL patients led to poor anastomotic healing, a weakened extracellular matrix in the colonic wound, and heightened inflammation locally. We identified 2 bacterial strains, Parabacteroides goldsteinii kh35 and Alistipes onderdonkii kh33, that were found to influence anastomotic healing, the first one positively and the second one negatively. These strains were found to modulate inflammation in the colonic mucosa, with P. goldsteinii exerting an anti-inflammatory effect and A. onderdonkii a pro-inflammatory effect. Using mucosal samples collected from patients before the completion of the anastomosis, we found with a multiplex assay that patients experiencing AL harbor higher basal levels of macrophage inflammatory protein- 1 alpha, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage Inflammatory Protein 2 and interleukin-17A/F, and that the microbiota of these patients lead to the same increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines in mice. To corroborate the hypothesis that patients experiencing AL after surgery harbor higher basal levels of microbiota-driven low-grade inflammation in the gut, we quantified 9 cytokines in the colorectal mucosa of 77 patients with CRC, among whom 13 experienced AL after surgery. All 9 cytokines were found to be increased in patients developing AL. We explored potential fecal inflammatory markers that could be used as screening biomarkers before surgery, and identified calprotectin and lipocalin-2 as being significantly different between patients that subsequently developed, or not, AL. 4 Next we explored whether bacterial metabolites may be used to improve anastomotic healing. Short-chain fatty acids are produced in the gut upon bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers. We therefore tested in mice whether dietary supplementation with inulin or galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), two fermentable oligosaccharides, could improve healing. We found that inulin and GOS increased the levels of the beneficial SCFA butyrate, improved anastomotic healing, promoted epithelial repair, collagen deposition and the gut barrier function. Finally, as butyrate is known to exert anticarcinogenic effect by stimulating the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), we further investigated the relationship between promotion of postoperative intestinal healing using inulin and 5-aminosalicylate (5-ASA), a PPAR-γ activator, and CRC recurrence. A review of postoperative survival of CRC patients with and without AL was performed. The effect of dietary supplementation with inulin and 5-ASA on local anastomotic tumors was assessed in mice undergoing colonic surgery. Inulin and 5- ASA were also assessed in a mouse model of liver metastasis where CRC cells are surgically inoculated into the spleen. Patients experiencing AL displayed significantly lower overall and oncological survival than non-AL patients. Poor anastomotic healing in mice led to larger anastomotic and peritoneal tumors. Inulin and 5-ASA reinforced the gut barrier and prevented anastomotic tumors and metastatic spread in mice. These findings reinforce the hypothesis that preventing AL improves oncological outcomes in patients with CRC, and pave the way towards clinical trials in which microbiotatargeted interventions may be used to enhance healing and diminish cancer recurrence. In summary, we demonstrated for the first time the causal link between the preoperative gut microbiota and anastomotic healing in patients with CRC. We also identified potential biomarkers that could be used in practice to detect microbiota-driven subclinical inflammation and predict healing before surgery. We also showed that the gut microbiota and PPAR-g could be modulated using fermentable oligosaccharides to improve healing, reinforce the gut barrier and prevent cancer recurrence.

In recent years there has been growing interest in the role of gut hormones in regulating appetite, energy balance and weight control. Prominent among these hormones is the hunger hormone ghrelin which is the only circulating hormone currently known to stimulate appetite. A variety of hormones are known to suppress appetite and notable among these is peptide YY (PYY). Both ghrelin and PYY exist in more than one form with acylated ghrelin and PYY3-36 representing the biologically active forms of these hormones i.e. the form of each hormone with the most potent effects on appetite. Many studies have investigated ghrelin responses to exercise in male participants and some studies have also examined PYY responses. Far fewer studies have examined ghrelin and PYY responses in female participants and this was the primary purpose of the studies reported here. This thesis comprises four main experimental chapters which collectively sought to clarify whether there is any evidence to support the hypothesis that appetite, gut hormone and food intake responses differ in female compared with male participants. A total of 123 participants took part in the studies reported in this thesis. The first of these studies was cross-sectional in nature and compared fasting appetite, plasma acylated ghrelin and dietary restraint questionnaire values (among other variables) in 34 males and 33 females. No significant differences were observed between sexes for any of these variables. In the second study, appetite, plasma acylated ghrelin and ad libitum food intake responses to cycling exercise were examined in 13 female participants taking the oral contraceptive pill in both the luteal and follicular phases of the menstrual cycle. Although fasting hunger and prospective food consumption values were higher in the follicular than the luteal phase there was no difference in appetite, plasma acylated ghrelin and food intake responses to exercise between menstrual cycle phases. In the third study, appetite, plasma acylated ghrelin, plasma PYY3-36 and food intake responses to energy deficits created via diet and exercise were compared in 13 young, healthy female participants who completed three separate trials (control, exercise deficit and food deficit) in a random order. The findings revealed that, as with male participants, females experience compensatory appetite, gut hormone and food intake responses to dietary induced energy deficits but not to exercise induced energy deficits (over the course of a nine hour observation period). The final study reported in this thesis compared appetite, plasma acylated ghrelin and ad libitum food intake responses to a one hour run in 10 male and 10 female participants. Suppressions of both hunger and plasma acylated ghrelin were noted during exercise but there was no significant difference in the responses of males and females during or after exercise. Collectively, the studies reported here suggest: 1) that fasting appetite and plasma acylated ghrelin concentrations do not differ between male and female participants; 2) that appetite, ghrelin and food intake responses to cycling exercise do not differ according to the phase of the menstrual cycle in females; 3) that dietary restriction is more likely to elicit compensatory feeding responses than elevated exercise levels in females and 4) that males and females do not differ in their acute appetite, ghrelin and food intake responses to an acute bout of running exercise. Hence the studies reported here do not support the hypothesis that exercise will be less effective for controlling appetite and food intake in females than in males.

Gut regulatory peptides, such as neuropeptides and incretins, play important roles in hunger, satiety and gastrointestinal motility, and possibly mucosal permeability. Many peptides secreted by myenteric nerves that regulate motor control are also produced in mucosal epithelial cells. Derangements in motility and mucosal permeability occur in many diseases. Current knowledge is fragmentary regarding gut peptide actions and mechanisms in motility and permeability. This thesis aimed to 1) develop probes and methods for gut permeability testing, 2) elucidate the role of neuropeptide S (NPS) in motility and permeability, 3) characterize nitrergic muscle relaxation and 4) characterize mechanisms of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and the drug ROSE-010 (GLP-1 analog) in motility inhibition. A rapid fluorescent permeability test was developed using riboflavin as a transcellular transport probe and the bisboronic acid 4,4'oBBV coupled to the fluorophore HPTS as a sensor for lactulose, a paracellular permeability probe. This yielded a lactulose:riboflavin ratio test. NPS induced muscle relaxation and increased permeability through NO-dependent mechanisms. Organ bath studies revealed that NPS induced NO-dependent muscle relaxation that was tetrodotoxin (TTX) sensitive. In addition to the epithelium, NPS and its receptor NPSR1 localized at myenteric nerves. Circulating NPS was too low to activate NPSR1, indicating NPS uses local autocrine/paracrine mechanisms. Nitrergic signaling inhibition by nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NMMA elicited premature duodenojejunal phase III contractions in migrating motility complex (MMC) in humans. L-NMMA shortened MMC cycle length, suppressed phase I and shifted motility towards phase II. Pre-treatment with atropine extended phase II, while ondansetron had no effect. Intestinal contractions were stimulated by L-NMMA, but not TTX. NOS immunoreactivity was detected in the myenteric plexus but not smooth muscle. Food-intake increased motility of human antrum, duodenum and jejunum. GLP-1 and ROSE-010 relaxed bethanechol-induced contractions in muscle strips. Relaxation was blocked by GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin(9-39) amide, L-NMMA, adenylate cyclase inhibitor 2´5´-dideoxyadenosine or TTX. GLP-1R and GLP-2R were expressed in myenteric neurons, but not muscle. In conclusion, rapid chemistries for permeability were developed while physiological mechanisms of NPS, nitrergic and GLP-1 and ROSE-010 signaling were revealed. In the case of NPS, a tight synchrony between motility and permeability was found.

The relationship between measures of temperament, growth performance, and social hierarchy in finishing beef cattle were explored in two experiments. In experiment 1, high OCS (objective chute score) steers had periods of significantly higher ADG (P < 0.01), but OCS had no relationship with dominance ranking (P > 0.47). Conversely, slow exit velocity (EV) correlated with higher ranking (P ≤ 0.06), but EV had no relationship with performance (P > 0.37) in a competitive environment. Rank showed no relationship with performance (P > .58). In experiment 2, steers with fast EV had periods of decreased growth (P ≤ .06), intake (P ≤ .06), and gain:feed (G:F; P = 0.02). There were no interactions between EV, OCS, and monensin or between EV and monensin. Monensin and EV together, however, significantly impacted overall (days 0 – end) G:F (P = 0.02) and gain (P = 0.05). Overall, these studies further confirm the idea that EV affects performance as does OCS in concert with monensin. Moreover, it further confirms that different measures of temperament correlated to different aspects of performance and should not be lumped together under the general term “temperament” when describing its relationship with performance.

Historically, terrestrial food web research has focused on describing the structure of aboveground grazing webs, and determining how interactions among plants, herbivores and higher trophic levels influence primary productivity. Detrital food webs however, play a significant role in regulation of ecosystem dynamics through direct impacts on decomposition. Unraveling the complex nature of detrital food web structure is critical to developing a better understanding of ecosystem function. Therefore the primary objective of this research was to describe the structure of the leaf-litter food web in a temperate deciduous forest, with emphasis on interactions between a community of generalist predators, the forest-floor spiders, and arthropod prey. Elucidating occurrence of trophic interactions in the forest-floor food web was a formidable task due to the high diversity, small body sizes and cryptic habits of many litter-dwelling arthropods. Analysis of natural variation in consumer stable isotope ratios (δ13C and δ15N) formed the crux of this research because it simultaneously permitted quantification of the trophic positions of litterdwelling arthropods and identification of spider resources, including prey subsidies from the grazing web. A monoclonal antibody-based ELISA was employed to analyze the gut contents of spiders to quantify predation on a major arthropod taxon, the forest-floor flies. Surveys of spider distributions and prey availability in the litter layer also provided fundamental knowledge of community structure. Stable isotope analyses suggested that most spiders exhibited strong trophic connections to the detrital web, but weak links to herbivorous prey. Several lines of evidence supported a strong trophic link between large, litterdwelling collembolans (Tomoceridae) and cursorial spiders, including correlation between spider and tomocerid densities on the forest-floor, similarities in spider and tomocerid carbon signatures, and nitrogen enrichment of tomocerids relative to other prey types. Conversely, this research provided conflicting evidence regarding spider consumption of flies. Gut content assays indicated consistent predation on flies by cursorial spiders, while stable isotope models suggested that flies are likely of little importance in the spiders’ diets. This project yielded valuable insights into the role of spiders in the forest-floor food web and the potential importance of species-specific variation in prey consumption for detrital food web dynamics.

This thesis aims to assess the human health impact of exposure to estrogenic compounds from the diet. A multi-disciplinary approach is taken to address various aspects of this issue. An introduction to xenoestrogens, including international research priorities, wildlife and human health effects, mechanisms of action, structure activity relationships and additivity of estrogenic effects is provided as background information. An assessment of exposure to a range of naturally occurring and synthetic estrogenic compounds found in food is derived in Chapter 2. The assessment combines new and existing data on food concentration, food consumption and serum levels for each xenoestrogen. Exposure is combined with relative estrogenic potency data from published bioassasy data to estimate risk relative to normal circulating levels of estradiol. Assuming additivity of xenoestrogens, for an average New Zealand male and for post-menopausal women, xenoestrogens in the diet contribute an additional 12-90% of estrogenicity above normal circulating levels. For a pre-menopausal female, the contribution from the diet represents in the order of an additional 2%. The level of exposure determined in this thesis would seem to be of pharmacological relevance, especially for men with low levels of estrogen and for post-menopausal women. Bisphenol A (BPA) is an important monomer used in the manufacture of epoxy resins for internal food can linings. A survey of the BPA content of a range of 80 canned foods available to the New Zealand consumer was undertaken and the results used in the exposure and risk assessments. BPA was detected in all foods analysed except soft drinks, at concentrations ranging from <10-29 µg/kg, except for individual samples of tuna, corned beef and coconut cream that were 109, 98 and 191 µg/kg respectively. None, of over 4000 individual exposure scenarios, exceeded the temporary Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of 10 µg/kg body weight per day set by the Scientific Committee on Food in 2002. Intestinal microflora influence the bioavailability of the naturally occurring xenoestrogens genistein and daidzein that contribute significantly to total estrogenicity from the diet. The degradation of genistein and daidzein by the faecal microfloral of 5 human subjects was variable and unpredictable between individuals and within an individual. These findings have important implications for the promotion and prescription of soy foods and supplements for disease prevention and health benefits. The "yeast assay" is one of a number of methods available to measure estrogenicity. This assay was established and validated. In utero exposure to estrogenic compounds at critical periods of sexual differentiation and endocrine development may imprint for health effects observed later in life. Placental transfer of estrogenicity, from 17β-estradiol was studied using the human placental perfusion model and the yeast assay. The placenta provides a protective barrier to the transfer of estrogenicity. Experiments with genistein showed that 5-15% placental transfer occurred, suggesting that in utero exposure might be in the order of 10% of maternal exposure. The thesis concludes with consideration of a genomic approach to substantiate, or refute, the mechanistic link between exposure to xenoestrogens and claimed human health effect. Such an approach offers exciting opportunity to clarify the mode of action of the synthetic versus the naturally occurring xenoestrogens, to confirm or dispute additivity of effect that is an important premise of the exposure assessment, to identify key genes involved in the many possible health effects and thence risk to the individual from dietary exposure to xenoestrogens.

Gut microbial communities exist in the vast majority of animals, and often form complex symbioses with their hosts that affect their host's biology in numerous ways. To date, the majority of studies of these complex interactions have focused on the nutritional benefits provided by the microbiota; however, the natural microbiota can also influence development, immunity, and the metabolism of its host. Apis mellifera, the honey bee, harbors a distinctive bacterial community that is present in individuals from distant locations around the world; however, the basis of the bee-microbiota association is unknown. This dissertation explores properties of the bacterial microbiota within bees, including its persistence of this association, mechanisms of transmission, localization through host ontogeny, and basic metabolic capabilities that define and maintain the symbiotic relationship. Apis and Bombus species (honey and bumble bees) share a distinct bacterial microbiota that is not present in other bees and wasps. Close analysis of the A. mellifera microbiota revealed consistent communities in adult worker gut organs and a general lack of bacteria in larvae. Contact between workers and with hive materials were identified as major routes of transmission for bacterial communities, showing the importance of social behavior in this association. Genomic analysis of a gut bacterium co-sequenced with the Bombus impatiens genome revealed it as a divergent lineage of Gammaproteobacteria, and deletions of conserved metabolic pathways, reduction in genome size, and its low GC content all suggest that the bacterial species has had a long association with its host.