<p>Av ditt intryck, du inget vet, först när upplevelsen ter sig avsaktande, kan vi ställa frågan: vad är jag? Inget-ting min vän. Det beroendeuppkommandet av varat medför dess instabilitet, det finns ingen essens bara form. Alltet är en struktur, en universell struktur av dhammas. Ditt intryck och ditt frånvarande jag är opersonliga fenomen av garanterad upphörelse.</p> / <p>Off your impression, you know nothing, first when the experience feels like it’s slowing down, we can ask the question: what am I? Not-thing my friend. Our existents curse; of being under the dependent origination is what brings it’s instability; there is no essence, only form. The whole is a structure, a universal structure of dhammas. Your impressions and your absent self, is impersonal phenomena of guaranteed cessation.</p>

My dissertation lays out some of the chief philosophical precursors to Jonathan Israel's Radical Enlightenment. It investigates the principal question of Will Durant's The Age of Voltaire: "How did it come about that a major part of the educated classes in Europe and America has lost faith in the theology that for fifteen centuries gave supernatural sanctions and supports to the precarious and uncongenial moral code upon which Western civilization has been based?" The aim of this project is both broad and specific: the first is to provide a general history of the philosophical precursors to the Radical Enlightenment up until the early modern period, and the second is to highlight one of these precursors in detail, which I do in the large Spinoza part. With the assistance of a great deal of scholarship in philosophy of religion, history of philosophy, theological analysis, biblical criticism, and historiography, my dissertation contends that the major philosophical precursors against orthodox faith in revelation and for the Radical Enlightenment have been derived primarily from several forces. I present some of the general arguments of some of the pre-Socratics and Greek philosophers, especially Socrates and Plato, emphasizing their rationalist and non-theological thinking. Then I point out how some of this Greek philosophical literature led to new philosophical and theological elements in some of the teachings of the Church Fathers, some of the medievals, and some of the scholastics, up to the early modern period. The core of my argument, however, begins to pick up steam at the Renaissance. With the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the early Enlightenment New Philosophy, everything changes. Renaissance textual criticism of ancient texts leads to the beginnings of some genuine biblical criticism. The explosion of naturalist-leaning explanations of nature via Copernicus, Galileo, Descartes and many others in the Scientific Revolution leads many to wonder if God is needed. The rejection of Aristotelian and Scholastic metaphysics by the New Philosophers, most notably, Descartes, undermine what for many provided the philosophical underpinnings for the Church and theology. And then "the most unkindest cut of all," the revolutionary historical and textual criticism of the Bible (by many early Enlightenment philosophers, especially Spinoza) which utterly undermines and refutes Judaism and Christianity.

This dissertation offers critical and theoretical approaches for understanding depictions of Spiritualism in Victorian and Neo-Victorian fiction. Spiritualism has fascinated and repelled writers since the movement's inception in Hydesville, New York, in 1848, and continues to haunt writers even today. The conclusion of this dissertation follows Spiritualist fiction as it carries over into the Neo-Victorian genre, by discussing how themes and images of Victorian Spiritualism find "life after death" in contemporary work. Spiritualism, once confined to the realm of the arcane and academically obscure, has begun to attract critical attention as more scholars exhume the body of literature left behind by the Spiritualist movement. This new critical attention has focused on Spiritualism's important relationship with various elements of Victorian culture, particularly its close affiliation with reform movements such as Women's Rights. The changes that occurred in Spiritualist fiction reflect broader shifts in nineteenth-century culture. Over time, literary depictions of Spiritualism became increasingly detached from Spiritualism's original connection with progressive reform. This dissertation argues that a close examination of the trajectory of Spiritualist fiction mirrors broader shifts occurring in Victorian society. An analysis of Spiritualist fiction, from its inception to its final incarnation, offers a new critical perspective for understanding how themes that initially surfaced in progressive midcentury fiction later reemerged--in much different forms--in Gothic fiction of the fin-de-siécle. From this, we can observe how these late Gothic images were later recycled in Neo-Victorian adaptations. In tracing the course of literary depictions of Spiritualism, this analysis ranges from novels written by committed advocates of Spiritualism, such as Florence Marryat's The Dead Man's Message and Elizabeth Phelps's The Gates Ajar, to representations of Spiritualism written in fin-de-siécle Gothic style, including Bram Stoker's Dracula and Henry James's The Turn of the Screw. My analysis also includes the work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, who conceived of Spiritualism as either "the birth of a new science or the revival of an old humbug." Hawthorne's ambivalence represents an important and heretofore completely overlooked aspect of Spiritualist literature. He is poised between the extremes of proselytizing Spiritualists and fin-de-siécle skeptics. Hawthorne wanted to believe in Spiritualism but remained unconvinced. As the century wore on, this brand of skepticism became increasingly common, and the decline of Spiritualism's popularity was hastened by the repudiation of the movement by its founders, the Fox Sisters, in 1888. Ultimately, despite numerous attempts both scientific and metaphysical, the Victorian frame of mind proved unable to successfully reconcile the mystical element of Spiritualism with the increasingly mechanistic materialist worldview emerging as a result of rapid scientific advances and industrialization. The decline and fall of the Spiritualist movement opened the door to the appropriation of Spiritualism as a Gothic literary trope in decadent literature. This late period of Spiritualist fiction cast a long shadow that subsequently led to multiple literary reincarnations of Spiritualism in the Gothic Neo-Victorian vein. Above all, Spiritualist literature is permeated by the theme of loss. In each of the literary epochs covered in this dissertation, Spiritualism is connected with loss or deficit of some variety. Convinced Spiritualist writers depicted Spiritualism as an improved form of consolation for the bereaved, but later writers, particularly those working after the collapse of the Spiritualist movement, perceived Spiritualism as a dangerous form of delusion that could lead to the loss of sanity and self. Fundamentally, Spiritualism was a Victorian attempt to address the existential dilemma of continuing to live in a world where joy is fleeting and the journey of life has but a single inexorable terminus. Writers like Phelps and Marryat admired Spiritualism as it promised immediate and unbroken communion with the beloved dead. The dead and the living existed together perpetually. Thus, the bereaved party had no incentive to progress through normative cycles of grief and mourning, as there was no genuine separation between the living and the dead. In the words of one of Marryat's own works of Spiritualist propaganda, there is no death.

Av ditt intryck, du inget vet, först när upplevelsen ter sig avsaktande, kan vi ställa frågan: vad är jag? Inget-ting min vän. Det beroendeuppkommandet av varat medför dess instabilitet, det finns ingen essens bara form. Alltet är en struktur, en universell struktur av dhammas. Ditt intryck och ditt frånvarande jag är opersonliga fenomen av garanterad upphörelse. / Off your impression, you know nothing, first when the experience feels like it’s slowing down, we can ask the question: what am I? Not-thing my friend. Our existents curse; of being under the dependent origination is what brings it’s instability; there is no essence, only form. The whole is a structure, a universal structure of dhammas. Your impressions and your absent self, is impersonal phenomena of guaranteed cessation.

Utgångspunkten för denna studie är att dokumentera och redogöra den traditionsbaserade utläggningsmetodologi inom islam. Fokus ligger på hur de traditionsbundna och de konservativa inriktningarna av sunni islam uppfattar denna företeelse. Betydelsen av tafsir har kommit att spela en allt viktigare roll till stor följd av den debatt som förs kring islam och vilken förståelse eller tolkning som skall ha företräde. Debatten fokusera primärt kring hur Koranen bör förstås och tolkas, vilket visar sig i den alltmer utpräglade konflikten mellan traditionsbundna inriktningar och progressiva grupperingar. De progressiva grupperna menar att islam och Koranens förordningar måste förstås utifrån den kontext de tillkom i och således är många av dessa förordningar föråldrade och i behov av omtolkning, medan de traditionsbundna inriktningarna anser att islam och Koranens bestämmelser är universella och följaktligen inte tidsbundna. Syftet med uppsatsen är att beskriva de principer som den traditionsbaserade tolkningsmetodologin utgörs av och att belysa hur dessa möjliggör att en korrekt förståelse av Koranen kan förvärvas.

Det har funnits en speciell mytisk bild av den fornskandinaviska mytologin sedan romantikens fantasifulla epok. Det ges ofta en bild som beskriver gudar och människors samspel på ett lekfullt sätt. Schamanismen har med sin annorlunda världsbild stått för något exotiskt men samtidigt skrämmande. I uppsatsen ges en beskrivning av fornskandinavisk sejd och samisk schamanism och en jämförelse mellan dessas likheter och skillnader. Genom att söka svar i både den poetiska och prosaiska Eddan, samt Heimskringla söker författaren komponenter för att beskriva det magiska fenomenet sejd. Författaren till uppsatsen undersöker mer explicit vilka likheter respektive skillnader det finns mellan samisk schamanistisk jojk och andetrumma och fornskandinavisk galdrsång och sejdens trolltrumma. I sökandet efter likheter och skillnader ges beskrivningar av synen på könen och dess roll i kulten och kulturen. Slutligen ämnar författaren söka svar kring hur det är möjligt att med hjälp av bekräftade likheter definiera ett släktskap mellan fornskandinavisk religion och samisk schamanism.

In this essay I have tried to describe the rich tradition of thoughts about the afterlife in Judaism. The first part contains litterary studies and the second part is based on interviews with religious representatives. The first part is a description of the progress of thought in history around the issue afterlife. The sources reveal a vast amount of intellectual work on the issue. I have tried to follow the path of thought, and how it developed, so that the reader can see how one thought leads to the other but also how each period’s way of thinking is influnced by its context. The picture is not homogenetic. Troughout Jewish history there has been a permisive attitude against the impulse of saying the opposite of the general wiew, and to include the counterparts view in the texts that was saved for the future. Despite this, there have been influences from important philosophers, changes in history (enlightenment and holocaust) and both common attitudes and prejudicism, that has taken the issue afterlife off the agenda in judaism. It is – up until this day – not unusual that a rabbi, confronted with the question what jews beleive about life after death, can answer: - ”We have no beleif in the afterlife. We are a this-worldly religion.” When I started my work on this essay I talked with a friend who had heard a christian priest talk about what they knew about the Jewish views on the afterlife, and their conclusion was that the jews didn’t have any view on the afterlife.” This essay proves that they are wrong, although I met restraint. Having read a lot about the vast tradition about afterlife ideas through history, it was astonishing and surprising to get the answer, ”we don’t have a view about the afterlife, from one of the representatives. The second part of the essay tries to answer the question wether there is a conciousness about the vast and rich tradition of though about the afterlife, or not. Despite the restraint, the interviewed representatives revealed a great deal of knowledge, even of the parts in the tradition that they deny. My hope and ambition with this essay is that reading it will guide the reader inside the Jewish way of thinking, more than answering the question what will happen after I die. If I manage to show the reader my fascination of the combination between playfulness and deep seriousity in Jewish thinking; I have succeded. / I denna uppsats så har jag försökt beskriva den rika och varierade tradition av tankar rörande livet efter detta inom judendomen. Dess första del är en litterär studie och dess andra baserar sig på tre intervjuer av religiösa representater. Den första delen innehåller en beskrivning av tankens utveckling genom historien, vad gäller ämnet livet efter detta. Källorna som tar upp ämnet, visar upp en stor mängd fascinerande intellektuellt och konstnärligt arbete. Jag har försökt följa tankens väg och hur den utvecklats, så att läsaren kan se hur en tanke lett till en annan och hur varje periods tänkande är influerat av sin kontext. Bilden är inte homogen. I judisk historia så har det alltid funnits en tillåtande attityd till impulsen att säga det motsatta till den allmänna åsikten, och att inkludera dessa i Texterna som sedan sparades för framtiden. Trots detta, så har influenser ifrån viktiga filosofer, förändringar i historien (upplysningen och holocaust) och både vanliga attityder och fördomar, satt ämnet livet efter detta utanför agendan. Det är inte ovanligt att en rabbin – till dags dato – som får frågan vad judar tror om livet efter döden,svarar: - ”Vi har ingen syn på livet efter döden. Vi är en livets religion.” När jag började jobba med denna uppsats, sa en vän till mig att en kristen präst sagt samma sak: - ”Judar har ingen syn på livet efter detta.” Denna uppsats visar att de har fel, men jag mötte ett märkligt motstånd. Efter att ha läst massor om den rika tradition av föreställningar om livet efter detta inom judendomen, så var det en smula chockerande och överraskande att få svaret ”vi har ingen syn på livet efter döden”, när jag beskrev min uppgift för ett av intervjuobjekten. Den andra delen av uppsatsen försöker besvara frågan huruvida det finns en medvetenhet om den rika och djupa tradition rörande föreställningar om livet efter detta, eller inte. Trots motståndet, visade de intervjuade upp en stor kunskap även om delar av traditionen som de förnekade. Mitt hopp och min ambition med denna uppsats är att den som läser den skall känna sig guidad in i judiskt sätt att tänka, mer än att få svar på vad som kommer att hända efter döden. Om jag lyckas visa läsaren min egen fascination av kombinationen mellan lekfullhet och djupt allvar i judiskt tänkande; då har jag lyckats.

. . . believe in God, believe also in me . . . --John 14.1 "Authoring Authority" analyzes the ways texts function to generate social cohesion while at the same time advancing the power interests of their authors. The study is a comparative, critical, and interdisciplinary/transdisciplinary excavation of the religion-making efforts of the first-century Christian Apostle Paul and the nineteenth-century Mormon Prophet Joseph Smith. This comparison defamiliarizes and recharacterizes the heroes and origin-stories of the dominant (and my own) tradition to force important questions about scholarly perspectives, interests and deferences (protection, exceptionalization), self-reflexivity, and politics. The project's critical orientation deploys insights and models from a range of disciplines to "read" these texts, not for exegetical purposes, but for what they signify and how they function in nascent social formations. The texts of these men were presented as if their contents were other than the products of embedded social actors (e.g. "it really is God's word" 1 Thes 2.13) contending for limited resources such as discursive authority and social power. These charismatic narrators harnessed the authority of pre-existing texts and traditions and integrated them with contemporary perspectives and sentiment. Their texts and performances offered a contingent construal of reality as ultimate reality--which served the power needs of their authors and the existential needs of their communities of subscribers. The dissertation begins with the articulation of an analytical framework appropriate for the critical and comparative academic study of religion. Chapter two contextualizes the lives of these men within cultural settings that provided motivation, made available vocational training and, ultimately provisioned social opportunities for them as adept charismatics. Chapter three directly illuminates the range of techniques embedded in texts, both implicit and explicit, of claiming power and developing a following. The final chapter wrestles with the functional role of deception in social formation and human life.

One of the great paradoxes of the medieval period is the Albigensian Crusade (1209-1225), in which monks of the Cistercian Order took an active and violent role in campaigning against the heretics of the Languedoc. Why, and how, did this order officially devoted to prayer and contemplation become one of the prime orchestrators of one of medieval Europe’s most gruesome affairs? This thesis seeks to answer that question, not by looking at the crusading Cistercians themselves, but at their predecessor Bernard of Clairvaux, who—I will argue—made the Albigensian Crusade possible by making it permissible for monks to intervene in the world outside the cloister. The logic of this thesis is as follows. Bernard of Clairvaux lived in a world in which monastics had a certain spiritual authority that granted them special privileges over ecclesiastics (Chapter II). The Cistercian Order itself, even before Bernard became their prime mover and shaker, used these privileges to cultivate contacts beyond monastic borders (Chapter IV), and once Bernard became a prominent abbot himself, his desire to do good and criticisms of the outside world (Chapter VI) led him to intervene in various endeavors (Chapter V). These interventions drew backlash from other monastics and ecclesiastics, which then required justification in order to reconcile the vita passiva and Bernard’s active lifestyle (Chapter VII). These justifications, along with Bernard’s justifications of violence (Chapter VIII), came to more broadly characterize the Cistercian Order as a whole (Chapters I, IV), and thus the ideological material to justify monastic holy war was all present in eloquently defended and rapturously accepted form by the time Henry of Clairvaux took a castle during his 1281 preaching mission turned mini-crusade (Chapter IX). With all of this built into the Cistercian DNA, Arnaud Amaury found it very easy to lead a crusade in 1212. Could he have done this without Bernard’s example paving the way and ingraining such lessons in Cistercian thought? It is my contention that he could not have.

This thesis will demonstrate that the modern understanding of the four primary crusades (1095-1204) has been influenced by a fundamentally flawed framework. Defining the crusades as a conflict between two monolithic at-war religious groups (Christians and Muslims) results in an incorrect conception of the period. Therefore, in order to deconstruct this belief, this thesis will view the crusades through the prism of two cities: Constantinople and Jerusalem. The rhetorical relationship that developed between these two cities during the crusading period demonstrates that the moment was defined by political and pragmatic relationships that cut across religious lines. Modern historians, through oversimplifications and assertions of a binary religious relationship, have buttressed public misperceptions of the crusades. Thus, historians have allowed the moment to be used as a rhetorical justification for modern political issues like imperialism and terrorism.