A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of phisophy in the Faculty of Arts, in the Department of IsiZulu naMagugu at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2005. / Lolu cwaningo IwethuIa ingqikithi yomlando ngemveIaphi yamagama okuqanjwe ngawo izindawo ezingaphakathi esiqiwini saseffiuhIuwe - Urnfolozi. Isahluko sokuqaIa siqukethe isethulo socwaningo jikelele. Lesi sahIuko simumethe isingeniso socwaningo .Siqukethe nentshisekelo yocwaningo okuyiyona evuse ivuso nesidingo sokuba kuthundIazwe Ie nyathuko . Sibuka izinhIosongqangi zawo wonke 10 msebenzi, Kubukwa izindlela zokuqhuba ucwaningo kanye nemidiyo yakhona nhlangothi zonkana Isipikili sibethelwe ngalabo abazohIomuIa kuIolu cwaningo kanye naIaboasebeke baphosa itshe esivivaneni. Isahluko sesibili sigxiIe kumveIaphi yamagama jikelele . lsisekelo sakho konke okukuIesi sahIuko sisemithethweni eyahIukehIukene yokulotshwa kwamagama ezilimi ngezilimi Lezo zilimi zithinta isiBhunu , isiDashi, isiNgisi, ezaBathwa kanye nezaboMdabu . Lesi sahluko sewukela nasokhaIweni Iongqondongqondo nongoti kwezokuqanjwa kwamagama lsahIuko sesithathu sibIaziya imvelaphi yamagama asesiqiwini saseffiuhIuwe uvtfolozi . La magama ahIaziywa esuswa emthonjeni womlando ngokufika kwabantu bengabade ezimfundeni zeMfolozi kanye nokuzalwa kwesiqiwu uqobo Iwaso.Ngokweqiniso lesi siqiwu saseffiuhIuwe sidala kunazo zonke iziqiwu ezikhona lapha kweiakwaMthaniya . Isiqiwu saseffiuhImve sasunguIwa ngonyaka we - 1894. Lesi siqiwu sasibubanzi obtmgamahekma ayizinkuIungwane ezingamashumi amabili • nantathu (23 000 ha). Kuze kwaba ngunyaka we -1990 Iapho lesi siqiwu sibIanganiswa nesaseMfolozi esasibubanzi base babungamahektha ayizinkuIungwane ezingamashumi ayisikhombisa nantathu (73 000 ha), Sezihlanganisiwe zibe sezakha amahektha ayizinkulungwane ezingamashumi ayisishiyagalolunye nesithupha (96 000 ha). Lezi ziqiwu zenganyelwe ngabongi bezemvelo ngaphansi kwe:t'<'hIangano okuthiwa Ezemvelo. Isahfuko sesine sigxile kuliso elinzulu Iengabade ngemvelo endaweni ethintekayo okuyisiqiwu saseHIuhIuwe - Umfolozi . Iso IesiNtu Iijule ngobunjalo bendawo nemvelo okuphatha uknjula,ukuphakama , amawathanga , amawa , imifula , izingoxi , imithi , amatshe , amanzi , ilanga , inyanga , izinyoni , iziIwane , izimvuIa , izimpi , izifo , imibala nokunye okuningi, Konke Iokhu kucacisa ngokuthe bha ngokungathekisa nokufanisa kwesintu ngezindlela ezahlukahlukene, Kouke Iokhu kuzinze enjuleni nengqikithi abantu bendabuko abalabalabela ukuba iklezwe iphindelelwe ngisho umpheblu yimiznkulu yezizukulwane ngezizukulwane zesizwe kanye nezomb1abajikelele. Isahluko .sesiblanu sijula ngokhaIo Iokublaziywa kocwaningo jikelele . Lapha kucofiywa ngononina ukusuka nokuhlala komsebenzi wengqikithi nomongo wala magama akulesi siqiwu. Ngaphezn kwalokho kwethulwa izincomo jikelele ngokuphathwa ngobumnene nangezandla zozibili kwamagugu engabade kuble kwezikhali zamaNtungwa Ekugcineni kwalo msebenzi ojule ngokwedlulele u1.'UZe ube isivivane nobani nobani ayolangazelela ukuphonsa kuso )tshe qede sibe ngumfelandawonye wesimakade.

Black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) are endangered; there are only ~5000 individuals remaining worldwide. Consequently, black rhinos are managed as a metapopulation in southern Africa. This means that even though several sub-populations of black rhinos are geographically separated, they are managed as a single population. This is achieved by interchanging genetic material between the sub-populations. The main aim of the metapopulation management approach is to increase black rhino numbers in the sub-region. The Rhino Management Group (RMG), formed in 1989, was tasked with setting scientifically defensible demographic targets for the remaining black rhino sub-populations in southern Africa. In the same year, the RMG set fecundity rate at 25% and stated that each black rhino sub-population should achieve a minimum growth rate of 5% per year. The black rhino population in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is of international importance as it has historically been a significant donor population for the translocation of black rhinos to establish new subpopulations elsewhere in the sub-region. However, the black rhino population at HiP is performing poorly in terms of reproductive success. My study was initiated to assess the reproductive life-histories of the black rhino population at HiP and to determine whether the population was meeting the demographic targets set by the RMG. I also wished to assess the use of space by black rhinos in HiP as a potential explanation for the observed reproductive output. Detailed life-history information for known black rhinos (n = 120) was used to investigate reproductive success between 1998 and 2012. The mean age at sexual maturity (ASM) was determined as 12 years, which is higher than the ASM found in black rhino populations that are considered to be performing poorly (ASM = ~ 7 years). The intercalving interval (ICI) was three years, nine months; this was also longer than the ICI of most black rhino populations. Further, the 2012 black rhino population at HiP had a growth rate of 6.4%, and the population comprised 60% adults, 23% sub-adults and 13% juveniles. Such demographics are usually observed in stable populations and it is possible that poor habitat quality could be resulting in the delayed ASM and longer ICI’s at HiP. In addition, 5% of the population is removed annually as part of the Black Rhino Range Expansion Program (BRREP) to establish new sub-populations. This could also be negatively influencing the reproductive performance of the HiP population. To determine the home range and habitat use of black rhinos at HiP, field data from 13 individual adult black rhinos (n = 9 females and 4 males) over a two-year period (2011-2012) were analyzed. Black rhino female home ranges were slightly smaller (15.4 ± 12.9 km²) than the home ranges of males (23.3 ±14.0 km²) and both sexes utilized similar habitats in the centre of the park. In addition, both the male and female black rhinos were found closer to rivers and drainage lines than expected. However, the assessment of black rhino space use in HiP was limited by a small sample size, making inferences of the impact of space use on reproductive success difficult. Nevertheless, my study suggests that food availability likely influences the location and sizes of black rhino home ranges at HiP. I believe that my study forms the first step in understanding the factors that influence the reproductive success and habitat use patterns of the current black rhino population at HiP. The information produced by my study should enable park management to identify future research to be conducted at HiP, which will yield more robust data for making informed black rhino management decisions at HiP and elsewhere.

KwaZulu-Natal’s Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park has historically been prioritized for biodiversity conservation but it also has the oldest protected wilderness area in the country. For 50 years, conservation management, tourism and education within the Imfolozi Wilderness Area have generally been carried out using non-mechanized wilderness principles. The validity of the Imfolozi Wilderness is constantly questioned in terms of efficiency, equity and aesthetics and is consequently subject to a variety of pressures that those different ideologies can exert. The historical development and applicability of the wilderness concept is examined here against evolving South African social and environmental circumstances. Whilst this investigation confirms the findings that colonialism and apartheid resulted in the exclusion of local peoples from protected areas, it also takes note that Imfolozi’s history is characterized by organizations and individuals who ignored the racist laws of the time. Nevertheless, management structures pertaining to both politics and conservation tended to be top-down, such that the Imfolozi Wilderness retained an air of elitism, regardless of attempts to be racially inclusive. Modern trends in protected area management expose the necessity of refining the justification of wilderness areas, to simultaneously recognize localized priorities and the importance of such areas to the planet’s ecological wellbeing. Without attempting to resolve philosophical debates but, at the same time, recognizing their validity, protected area management requirements for the Imfolozi Wilderness are examined in terms of the legal mandate handed to the management agency. This leads to the selection of the Limits of Acceptable Change planning and management system which is implemented as an action research project in conjunction with the Imfolozi Management Team, over a three year period. This involved: defining legal mandates and area issues; defining the zonation categories for the wilderness area; selecting the indicators to measure human impact; compiling an inventory of conditions in the wilderness area; specifying standards; examining alternative zonation category allocations from stakeholders and selecting a preferred alternative. The desired outcome was the establishment of a system in which managers could receive ongoing collaboration from stakeholders and consultatively develop a defendable wilderness management strategy that would meet the legal requirements of the area’s proclamation. Through a descriptive narrative, this dissertation provides an account of the implementation process and discusses to what extent this has been achieved. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Contemporary and historical studies of the flora of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve (HGR), have emphasised the woody component whilst little work has been performed on the herbaceous vegetation. This is particularly true with regard to the responses of grasses to historical fire and bush clearing. This study attempted to elucidate some of these responses. Of all the variables considered in this study, woody cover, altitude, the number of fire events, geological and soil parent material are the most important affecting the abundance of grasses in this reserve. Most of these variables are not independent in their effects on grass abundance, with varying degrees of correlation between each other. Certain species appear to be restricted to particular geological substrates. Along with successional changes in the composition and cover of the woody community, due to seemingly inevitable bush encroachment, there is a parallel change in grassland communities in this reserve. In the absence of clearing, numerous fires, higher altitudes, igneous geology and soils derived from igneous parent material delays this succession, whilst sedimentary geology at lower altitudes and fire frequencies accelerates the trend to high woody cover and associated grass species. The grass communities in HGR were shown to be significantly affected by bush clearing and fire. Specifically the number of clearings and fire events, physical bush clearing during 1957 - 1963 and chemical bush clearing during 1968 - 1978. From the responses of species in relation to the various key environmental variables, viz. geological substrate, woody cover and burning and clearing, a model of species response to these variables was developed. With increased fire and bush clearing frequency, the grass communities shift from closed woodland, shade tolerant species through to more open fire climax grassland. These are also more productive communities producing palatable grasses. Validation of aspects of the model were successful - the model having a relatively high predictive capability. Further testing of the model over different substrates and under different clearing regimes is necessary. With regular fires and re-clearing in some bush cleared areas, the vegetation of this reserve should be able to be maintained as productive and diverse grasslands. In the absence of this management, the grass communities will shift towards species associated with woodlands. Bush clearing activities would appear to be most effective over sites on igneous substrate, at higher altitudes, where successional rates are slowest. This is in comparison to sites at lower altitudes over sedimentary geology. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1992.

The ecological role of large herbivores is increasingly recognized due to their ability to influence ecosystem functioning and their impacts on faunal and floral assemblages. Knowledge on the determinants of spatial utilization is crucial towards the successful management of these species according to objectives set for the conservation of biodiversity. While numerous studies have investigated the factors influencing the movements and habitat preferences of large northern hemisphere herbivores, few have focused on members of the African megaherbivore guild. In the context of fenced reserves, elephants have been implicated in the degradation of habitat resulting in negative impacts on biodiversity. Using a kernel analysis approach, I calculated home range size and utilization distributions for five separate herds from an elephant population in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park and examined possible determinants. I explored differences in utilization intensity between herds and seasons by comparing the rugosity of utilization distributions. I used a utilization distribution-weighted composition analysis to determine seasonal habitat preferences within the home range and examined the factors influencing daily movement characteristics within different habitats in different seasons. Substantial variation in home range size and location, utilization intensity, habitat preferences and movement responses was evident between herds. Spatial and temporal variation in resource distribution and intra-specific competition explained differences in home range size and utilization intensity. Larger herds underwent more fission-fusion events than small herds, possibly due to resource scarcity and greater competitive interactions. Elephants preferred greener habitats during the dry season and appeared to conform to optimal foraging principles. They utilized forest habitats more than others, selected larger patches with high densities of favoured food items and included greater proportions of common woody species in their diet. Large groups foraged close to rivers in the wet season and appeared to broaden foraging choices in the dry season by moving further away. Restricted displacements in the early morning and evening suggested crepuscular foraging activity while greater displacements at midday could not be explained by the need for water. This study highlights the importance of considering variation in animal movements and habitat utilization in overall conservation planning and when evaluating threats to sensitive habitats, particularly in fenced protected areas. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

The forests of Hluhluwe Nature Reserve, Kwa Zulu-Natal, were examined to determine composition, grain, classification, dynamics and conservation value. Field sampling took the form of recording DBH for all species in twenty-one 0.04 ha circular plots, walking 5-metre wide transects in mature and marginal forest to record size-classes and analysis of twenty gaps. Data were analysed by the multivariate programs, TWINSPAN and CANOCO. The composition of the canopy and subcanopy is distinct. Four canopy and two subcanopy communities can be detected. Community succession in the mature forest takes the form of almost random replacement of canopy trees through two subcanopy communities. Size-class distributions indicate a prevalence of shade-intolerant species. This forest is deemed to be coarse-grained and can be classified as coastal scarp forest. Comparisons with other forests shows Hluhluwe to have slightly above average species richness. A removal of anthropogenic disturbance by the creation of the reserve may have resulted in present forest canopy structure. Management for conservation of species diversity should encourage disturbance. There is potential for harvesting of certain shadetolerant species by local communities. This forest is a pristine fragment of a rapidly diminishing vegetation type and efforts should be made to conserve its entire expanse, within Hluhluwe Nature Reserve, in order to prevent species loss.

The physical and chemical properties of soils can greatly influence the vegetation patterns in a landscape. This is especially so through the effect that particular characteristics of soils have on the water balance and nutrient cycling in savanna ecosystems. Areas in the savanna environment found in Hluhluwe iMfolozi Park have experienced a number of changes in the vegetation patterns observed. This study, therefore, looks at the effect that soil characteristics may have on the vegetation growth in this area and on the changes that have taken place over time. Fixed-point photographs, taken every four years, were used to choose fourteen sites in the Park, which showed either a ‘change’ or ‘no-change’ in vegetation from 1974 to 1997. The sites consisted of four which had ‘no-change’ in vegetation, two sites with a slight increase (5- 20%) in tree density, three sites with a greater increase in tree density (>20%), two sites with a slight decrease in tree density (5-20%), and three sites with a greater decrease in tree density (>20%). Transects were then carried out at each site, in which the soil was classified to the form and family level. Each horizon was then sampled and the field texture, structure, Munsell colour and depth of each horizon and profile recorded. The data recorded in the field were statistically analysed through a principal component analysis (PCA). The type of horizon, horizon boundary, structure type, colour group and depth for the top and subsoil were included in the models and were analysed with the number given to each site for each of the three sections of the Park, namely Hluhluwe, the Corridor and iMfolozi. The most prominent textures at all sites were sandy loam, loam, clay loam and silt loam for both the top and subsoil for all site categories. The texture classes were also compared across the Hluhluwe, Corridor and iMfolozi sections. The dominant textures in the Hluhluwe and Corridor sections are loam, clay loam and silt loam for both top and subsoils. Sites sampled in the iMfolozi section appear to have textures mainly associated with the clay loam and sandy loam classes. The structure classes of the soil including sub-angular blocky, granular and crumb which are associated with a moderate structure appear to be the most dominant type in all categories for the topsoil; single-grain and sub-angular blocky classes the main types for the subsoil. Generally the colour of the soil at all the sites sampled was yellower than 2.5YR and the values and chromas mostly fell within the range of 3-5 and 2-6, respectively. This is also shown in the PCA results obtained, which associate particular soil characteristics with the various sites sampled for the different vegetation change categories investigated. The samples collected were also analysed in the laboratory after being air-dried. The laboratory analysis included measurements of pH, exchangeable acidity, organic carbon, extractable phosphorus, particle size distribution and cation exchange capacity (CEC). The data recorded in the laboratory were also analysed by PCA. This was used to determine which soil properties are associated with the particular sites investigated. The pH of the soil, in all areas, fell within a wide range. The pH is influenced by the rainfall in the area and thus sites sampled in the Hluhluwe section are more acidic than those sampled in the Corridor and iMfolozi sections. The topsoils had a higher pH for all the samples and were in the range between 5 and 7. The exchangeable acidity measurements were low, although they were higher in the subsoil as opposed to the topsoil. The nutrient contents did not appear to vary greatly between the different sites in the Park. Generally extractable phosphorus, CEC and organic carbon were low across the Park. The particle size analysis showed that the clay percentage increases between the top and subsoil for all the sites sampled. The silt and various fractions of sand percentages vary across all sites and are lower than the clay percentage at all sites except the A horizon of the ‘slight increase’ sites. The ‘no-change’, and ‘increase’ sites have a higher percentage of clay as compared to the silt and sand fraction for both the A and B horizon. The ‘slight increase’ sites have a higher percentage of sand in the A and B horizon, the ‘slight decrease’ sites have a more equal percentage between the sand, silt and clay fractions in the A horizon and a greater percentage of clay in the B horizon. The ‘decrease’ sites have a greater percentage of clay and silt in the A and B horizon. While certain soil properties have a definite effect on the plant growth, no relationship between specific soil properties and vegetation changes was shown. However, it is likely that the soil structure and texture affect the vegetation patterns, through their influences on the water and nutrient holding capacity. With an increase in the clay percentage and more strongly structured soils, plants can access more water and nutrients and this will increase the tree density in an area. However, the recent changes in the vegetation patterns observed in the Park appear to be more associated with other environmental factors. The soil properties analysed would have generally been more constant at the sites sampled, particularly over the relatively short period of time in this study. Therefore, the changes which were recorded in the fixed-point photographs would have been enhanced by other factors experienced in the Park, including fire and the effect that grazers and browsers have on the vegetation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

While much research into vulnerability to global and local environmental change has been undertaken at a regional and biome level, few detailed local case studies of areas vulnerable to national multiple stressors (e.g. environmental and other change) have been undertaken. Little research effort to date, moreover, has been done that attempts to link biophysical impacts and causes of change with socio-economic causes and impacts of change in protected areas and national parks in South Africa. Governmental departments, non-governmental organisations and global environmental panels such as the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change are formulating strategies to counteract the ongoing and increasing environmental stressors, occasioned largely by climate change facing communities, in southern Africa and elsewhere. Vulnerability to global and local environmental change is also compounding food insecurity and is being heightened in part by reduced governmental capacity. The time scale under investigation chosen is 1980 to 2000; a period that captures varied climate stressors such as floods and droughts, as well as marked socio-political change in South Africa. The data available were, in some cases, restricted and the data range does not always cover the entire period anticipated. The last KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife Service Yearbook was produced in 2000 and this has effectively restricted this end period. Social and biophysical diversification within one system, namely the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park, was evaluated in an attempt to evaluate the shorter-term coping capacity and longerterm adaptive capacity of the park over the past twenty-two years. As far as social vulnerability is concerned, the differences between internal and external factors, either enhancing or reducing the response capacity to change, were also noted for the period. The coping strategies being utilised by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in order to deal with changing circumstances and inputs including climate variability, political change and social aspects are described. The very complex interplay between socio-economic and biophysical factors of the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park, a formally proclaimed protected area managed by KwaZulu- Natal Wildlife Services, is examined in this research. An important aspect of the research is an assessment of vulnerability “drivers”, including climate variability, as well as vulnerability to other stressors such as, for example, social, biophysical and institutional causes and consequences of change. A preliminary evaluation was carried out to establish what factors are driving change and have the potential to further shape the park. Finally some preliminary suggestions from the study on what constitutes flexibility and resilience, in such cases, are provided. Clearly more detailed assessments will be required in the future in order to support and expand this research.

While many studies have been done on Lions, relatively little work has been conducted on how they interact with local habitats and the factors of importance in determining home ranges and territories. The interactions between predators and patchily distributed resources and the basic tenets of Ideal Free Distribution theory have been used in this study as the basis in explaining how lions distribute themselves in space and why they choose particular areas above others in regards territory location. The study was conducted in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, South Africa and involved the use of historical lion sightings data recorded between the years 1973 and 1999 inclusive. A variety of potential explanatory variables including vegetation, topography, rainfall, main river distribution, roads, hyaena den locations and prey were used in developing logistic models which were then used to predict areas most likely to be colonised by lion. Model predictions were tested against independently collected validation data from an introduced pride . Modelling was conducted at a 1km² grid cell size. In total, seventeen models were formulated for four lion variables, namely cubs, adult females in groups of two or more, adult males seen with adult females and adult males only. All models accounted for a significant amount of deviance (p<0.001) except for one cub model (p=0.003). Models which performed best in correlations with validation data were those formulated for adult females in groups of two or more and cubs (p<0.05). Variables of importance in these models included distance from main rivers and presence/absence of public roads. Preferences for travelling on roads were influenced by vegetation type, with thicket promoting travel on roads and the opposite being true of open woodland, however this was only true for females in groups of two or more. Main rivers represent high quality resource areas for lions in the reserve since they provide water, shelter, cover (hence ease of prey capture) and travel lines. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) was reintroduced into Hluhluwe Umfolozi Park (HUP) in 1980/81 after an absence of over 50 years. A 'hands off' management approach was applied. Although the reintroduction is regarded as successful, the population has not increased significantly and still only consists of a single pack. Various aspects which may affect this population were investigated to compile an active management strategy. Home range analyses identified extensive use of a home range which covered only 22.7 % of HUP and was situated entirely in Hluhluwe Game Reserve. The extensive movements of the dogs within their home range were primarily dictated by the movements and distribution of their prey species, especially nyala (Tragelaphus angasu) and impala (Aepyceros melampus). Forest habitats were preferred, but all available habitat types were utilised extensively by the wild dogs. Space and habitat were both considered to have no limiting effect on this population and HUP has sufficient space and suitable habitat to support a larger population of L. pictus. A number of potentially pathogenic antigens were identified in the population, indicating that it had been exposed to these at some time. Domestic dogs in the areas surrounding HUP were identified as the most likely source of these diseases which pose a threat to the wild dogs. Some genetic considerations are discussed in terms of their effect on the population status and management of the wild dogs. A number of management proposals based on the results of the project were formulated. It is suggested that an active management approach be adopted for the population. This includes managing it as part of a metapopulation which primarily involves the exchange of genetic material among similar wild dog populations on a regular basis. The immediate supplementation of the population with new genetic material is proposed. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1996.