Les produits du terroir occupent une place privilégiée dans le goût des consommateurs qui, aujourd’hui, s’intéressent davantage à connaître la provenance et les qualités des produits qu’ils consomment. Le Mexique a une grande variété de produits du terroir, appris et transmis aux producteurs de génération en génération, mais certains manquent de protection ou la protection est inefficace. Les producteurs du Mexique vivent souvent dans des conditions marginales, et l'imitation de leurs produits résulte en une réduction de leurs ventes. Ils sont souvent contraints à changer de métier. Cette situation met en péril le patrimoine national en raison de l’abandon des connaissances traditionnelles, lesquelles représentent l'identité et la diversité culturelle de la nation mexicaine. La « Ley de la Propiedad Industrial » (LPI) prévoit l'appellation d’origine et la marque collective en tant que mécanismes de protection; cependant, ils ne sont pas toujours adéquats pour assurer une protection efficace des produits du terroir. Notre objectif est d'analyser si l'inclusion de l’indication géographique à la LPI peut favoriser l’enregistrement des produits du terroir qui sont à risque de disparaître. Cette étude fait donc ressortir la nécessité de modifier la LPI afin qu’elle réponde mieux aux besoins et aux réalités du Mexique. / Local products occupy a privileged place in the preferences of consumers who are more and more interested in knowing the origin and the quality of the products they consume. Mexico has a great variety of “terroir products”, learned and passed on to producers from generation to generation, but some of them lack protection or their protection is ineffective. Mexican producers oftentimes live in marginal conditions, and the imitation of their products results in a reduction in sales. They are often forced to change their trade. This situation puts the national patrimony in jeopardy due to the abandonment of traditional knowledge, which represents the identity and cultural diversity of the Mexican nation. The « Ley de la Propiedad Industrial » (LPI) provides for the appellation of origin and the collective mark as mechanisms of protection; however, they are not always adequate to ensure an effective protection of “terroir products”. Our goal is to analyze whether the inclusion of the geographical indication in the LPI will strengthen the registration of “terroir products” that are at risk of disappearing. This study thus highlights the need to revise the LPI to better reflect the needs and realities of Mexico.

Thèse réalisée en cotutelle avec l'université Paris1-Sorbonne / Les mondes virtuels multi-joueurs sont des jeux à trois dimensions. Leurs utilisateurs s’adonnent depuis plusieurs années à plusieurs activités en se transférant des objets virtuels créés ou achetés dans les mondes virtuels dont ils revendiquent la propriété. Ces objets appelés « biens virtuels » n’ont d’existence qu’en ligne et peuvent prendre n’importe quelle forme (avatars, vaisseaux spatiaux, etc.). Bien que le marché des transactions de biens virtuels représente un important impact économique, social et juridique sur l’ensemble de la consommation, ces « biens » ne sont pourtant pas juridiquement reconnus, ni protégés par la loi ou par la jurisprudence en Amérique du Nord et en Europe, seuls les contrats de licence rédigés par les développeurs régissent leurs utilisations. Or, les conflits dans ce domaine peuvent devenir très complexes, car les rencontres virtuelles donnent lieu à une grande variété d’activités et sont créatrices de liens de droit entre des internautes qui peuvent se trouver physiquement à l’autre bout de la planète pour se rencontrer virtuellement dans l’environnement du cyberespace. Ainsi, les effets dommageables de ces activités vont se manifester en dehors du réseau. Puisque dans ces cas, l’espace virtuel et l'espace matériel sont interconnectés, on se pose la question suivante : quelle est la loi applicable aux transferts de « biens virtuels »? Pour traiter d’une question litigieuse en droit international privé, il faut passer par l’étape préalable de la qualification juridique de l’objet du litige, ici les biens virtuels, afin d’être en mesure de le rattacher à un régime juridique et à la règle de conflit applicable selon ce régime. Les biens virtuels, immatériels par essence, n’existent pas réellement. Techniquement parlant ce sont des représentations graphiques de codes sources enregistrés dans le logiciel du monde virtuel. Ainsi, l’existence juridique de l’objet virtuel en tant que « bien » est controversée en droit civil, car elle dépend de la conception stricte (traditionnelle) ou élargie (moderne) que l’on adopte du droit de propriété. En admettant que les biens virtuels soient reconnus en droit des biens, les règles de conflits de lois applicables à cette matière portent beaucoup d’importance sur la situation matérielle du bien pour la localisation du rapport de droits, ce qui rend très difficile la recherche de solution des conflits de lois dans notre matière. Ainsi, l’application du principe de l’autonomie tend à s’élargir aux questions de droits réels, mais cette solution n’est pas satisfaisante pour les tiers. Dès lors, il convient de se rallier à la doctrine contemporaine qui critique la référence générale à la règle de rattachement localisatrice dans des situations nouvelles et spécifiques empreintes de difficultés de localisation afin d’appliquer préférablement le régime de propriété intellectuelle, adoptée spécifiquement pour les biens immatériels. L’application de la loi sur les droits d’auteur est plus adaptée aux biens virtuels en tant qu’œuvre de l’esprit, parce que les droits ne se trouvent pas limités par l’inexistence de cet objet et parce que les règles de conflits propres au droit d’auteur d’origine conventionnelle permettent une protection internationale du droit d’auteur. / Multi-player virtual worlds are three-dimensional games. Over the past few years, players have been engaging in various activities involving the transfer of virtual objects that they have themselves created or purchased in these virtual worlds and over which they claim ownership. The objects, called “virtual goods”, exist only in the online world and may take any number of forms (e.g. avatars, space ships, etc.). Although the market for virtual property has important economic, social and legal impacts on consumption, these “goods” are neither recognized by the law, nor protected by North American or European legislation or jurisprudence; only the licensing contracts drafted by the developers regulate their uses. However, conflicts that arise in this domain may grow very complex since virtual interactions give rise to a great variety of activities and create legal relationships between the cybernauts who meet in the virtual environment of cyberspace although they may be physically located on either ends of the planet. Thus, the adverse effects of these activities may manifest themselves outside of the cyber environment. Since the virtual world and the physical world are interconnected in these cases, we have to ask the following question: what law should apply to the transfer of the “virtual goods”? In order to answer contentious questions that arise under private international law, one must first go through the initial step of juridically qualifying the objects in question, here the virtual goods, in order to be able to assign them to a specific legal regime and to the specific conflict of laws rules that apply under that regime. Virtual goods – inherently immaterial – do not really exist: they are graphic representations of source code embedded in the software of the virtual world. Thus, the legal characterization of the virtual objects as “property” is controversial under civil law because it depends on whether one adopts a strict (traditional) concept of property law or a more expansive (modern) concept. Even if virtual goods were to be recognized under property law, since the conflict of laws rules applicable to property law place a lot of importance on the physical location of the property in order to determine the legal attachment, this renders the search for a solution to the conflict of laws in this area very difficult. Application of the principle of contractual autonomy therefore provides greater scope in determining property rights, but this solution may not be satisfactory to third parties. Thus, it is useful to turn to the contemporary doctrine that criticizes the general application of the rule of physical attachment to particular and novel contexts that present difficulties in determining the location of the property and instead applies the intellectual property regime which is specifically designed to deal with incorporeal goods. Copyright law is better suited to virtual goods as creations of the mind since its application is not hampered by the non-existence of the goods and because the conflict of laws rules applicable to traditional copyright law provide international protection for copyrights.

This thesis aims to provide a framework for analyzing the moral responsibilities of global agents in what I call the Global Health Crisis (GHC), with special attention devoted to the moral responsibilities of pharmaceutical companies. The main contribution of this thesis is to provide a general account of the moral responsibilities of different global players, mapping the different kinds of duties they have, their content and force, and their relation to the responsibilities of other relevant actors in the GHC. I also apply this account to current debates surrounding the need for reforms to the international legal rules addressing the GHC, notably the TRIPs regime. In doing so, this thesis will discuss the allocation of responsibilities for the GHC among different global players, such as state and non-state actors, the latter including pharmaceutical companies. In order to investigate the allocation of duties, I will first analyze the object of such allocation which constitutes the object of the current GHC (Part A); then the agents responsible for addressing this crisis (Part B); and finally, existing institutional alternatives to reform the international legal rules addressing the GHC, such as the TRIPs regime (Part C).

Depuis 2002 en Asie, 2005 en Europe et aux États-Unis, des éditeurs de presse écrite et des annonceurs proposent à leur lectorat équipé en téléphone portable ou en ordiphone d’accéder à des contenus et services numériques via ceux imprimés dans le journal. Ces nouvelles formes de communications brouillent les relations traditionnelles entre éditeurs de presse, annonceurs et lectorat, également mobinaute. Les enjeux techniques et politiques de ces services de communication s’étudient simultanément à trois niveaux. Le premier, physique, se situe dans la combinaison entre le papier et le terminal électronique de l’individu relié au réseau. Le deuxième, logique, se situe dans la forme (privée ou publique) de ce qui est imprimé sur le papier (langage humain ou machine) et la méthode logicielle mise en oeuvre (lecture locale ou à distance) de manière synchrone (presse augmentée) ou asynchrone (code graphique, recherche ou identification par l’image). Le troisième niveau, des contenus, consiste à s’interroger sur le sens de la surimpression de contenus et de services numériques à l’écran de l’ordiphone suivant ce qui est imprimé dans le journal. Notre étude aura par ailleurs consisté à mettre en lumière les régimes juridiques des méthodes logicielles basées d’une part sur le contenu et régies par le droit de la propriété intellectuelle, et basées d’autre part sur un langage informatique et régies par le droit des liens hypertextes. Avec un ordiphone, un titre de presse évolue d’un support d’information à un canal de communications électroniques où le contexte et l’identité de l’individu jouent un rôle innovant dans la transmission et l’accès à l’information. / Since 2002 in Asia, and 2005 in Europe and the United States, press editors and advertisers have offered access to digital content and services to readers that possess a smartphone. These new forms of communication blur the traditional relationships between press editors, advertisers and readers. To study the technical and political elements concerning these new communication services, we rely on the three-layer network approach: the physical, the logical and the content infrastructure layer. The physical layer is located between the sheet of paper and the electronic device that links the user to a network. The logical layer corresponds to the form (private or public) of what is printed on the page (i.e., human readable or machine language) and the software employed (i.e., local or distant reading), be it synchronously (augmented press) or asynchronously (graphic codes, image search or image identification). The third layer concerns the way the content from the printed page are presented on the screen of the smartphone. Our study equally aims to shed light on the current legal translations of software methods: when based on content, the methods are seen to concern intellectual property law; whereas when based on computer language they concern the laws on hyperlinks. With smartphones, a printed edition evolves from an information medium to an electronic communication channel where the context and the identity of the user play an innovative role in the transmission and access to information.

Le droit des brevets a pour objet l’appropriation d’enseignements techniques nouveaux afin d’encourager le développement de la recherche dans le domaine de la technique. Ainsi, la technicité constitue une condition fondamentale de l’apparition du droit de brevet. Cependant, la définition de ce qu’est la technique en droit des brevets exige, au préalable, de déterminer quelle est sa fonction normative. Cette fonction varie selon la conception de la propriété retenue. L’approche matérialiste de la propriété en fait une limite à l’appropriation tandis que l’approche idéaliste en fait un critère d’appropriation de la chose. Selon la première approche, la propriété ne concerne que des choses corporelles et des droits. L’invention est alors confondue avec une chose corporelle dont elle autorise la réalisation. La technicité est le critère de la corporéité, c’est une limite à l’appropriation. Cette approche se traduit par l’établissement d’un domaine de la brevetabilité défini par une énumération des choses non appropriables et par une appréciation de la technicité au niveau d’une chose corporelle que la réalisation de l’invention permet. Selon la seconde approche, qui emporte notre conviction, la propriété peut porter sur des choses corporelles et sur des choses incorporelles. La technicité constitue un critère de l’appropriation. Cette approche se traduit par la suppression du domaine de la brevetabilité et par une appréciation de la technicité au niveau de la chose incorporelle de l’invention. / The object of patent law is the appropriation of novel technical teachings in order to support technological development. Thus, the technicality is a fundamental condition of the patent right appearance. However, the definition of what technique is in patent law demands, at first, to fix what its normative function is. This function varies depending on the property conception retained. The materialist approach of property views it as a limit to appropriation, while the idealist views it as a criterion of appropriation.According to the first approach, the property only concerns corporal things and rights. Then the invention is mixed up with a corporal thing that its realization allowed. The technicality is the criterion of corporality, it is a limit to the appropriation. This approach is realized by the establishment of the domain of patentability, which is defined by a list of objects that are not appropriable and by the assessment of the technicality of the invention at the latest stage of realization the invention allows.According to the second approach, which we are defending, the property can concern either corporal or incorporal things. Then the invention is an incorporal thing. The technicality is a criterion of the appropriation. This approach is realized by the suppression of the domain of patentability and by the assessment of the technicality of the invention at the non-tangible stage.

Les technologies issues du numérique ont donné naissance à des contrats qui nécessitent une approche particulière et qui posent parfois des difficultés de mise en oeuvre, d’application, d’interprétation, et même de qualification, tant leur existence ne peut désormais plus être ignorée dans le paysage juridique. A cela, s’ajoute le fait qu’ils répondent à un réel besoin, à la fois de la part des praticiens du droit et des acteurs de ces contrats. C’est sans compter qu’ils se démarquent des conventions issues du monde analogique en de nombreux points, sachant que néanmoins, ils s’inscrivent dans le cadre d’une évolution logique et naturelle du droit. C’est ainsi que depuis quelques années, le droit voit se profiler des contrats imposant au législateur d’élaborer de nouveaux textes, en raison des lacunes juridiques encore grandes en la matière. La question qui se pose d’emblée est alors de savoir quelle est leur place dans la vie juridique, et surtout, comment ils sont perçus et analysés par rapport à ceux plus « classiques » issus du monde analogique. Dès lors, d’autres interrogations s’enchaînent : dans quel type d’environnement évoluent-ils ? Quels sont les critères qui caractérisent le mieux les contrats liés aux technologies issues du numérique ? Et surtout, qu’est-ce qui les rend si spécifiques et si inédits par rapport aux autres contrats, et qu’est-ce qui fait leur essence même ? On en vient alors à se demander si la dématérialisation de leur objet et leur orientation tournée vers les technologies influencent leur mode de formation et leur exécution. Autrement dit, quel est leur impact sur l’équilibre contractuel et quelles sont leurs implications juridiques concrètes ? Une chose est sûre : si ces contrats font appel à un vocabulaire technique propre au monde numérique et que leur objet peut sembler de prime abord inédit et complexe, en réalité, il en est autrement, les prestations auxquelles ils renvoient étant au final, très proches de celles qui nous entourent depuis toujours. / Over the last decades, the fast-evolving technologies and the information and communication technologies (I.C.T) have been widespread in the current analogical world. They are engendered agreements which need a particular approach and which can’t be ignored today, because of their difficulties of application, interpretation, and even of qualification. The analogical world failed to offer a legal framework to that innovative and dynamic digital world creating tremendous legal uncertainty. Consequently, the emerging lack of appropriate agreements forced policymakers, regulators and legislators to elaborate new governance, new regulation and new acts to respond to those needs and expectations issued of the Information Society. The purpose is also to answer to the real needs of the lawyers and the professors of Law. These agreements are very different of the agreements of the analogical world in numerous points, but are inscribed in a logical and natural evolution of the Right of contracts. That’s why, it’s necessary to know what is their place in the legal life, and above all, how they are perceived and analyzed regarding the more "classical" contracts of the analogical world. Furthermore, other questions may be asked : in which kind of environment they evolve? What is characterizing the contracts linked to the information and communication technologies? What makes them so specific and so particular compared with the other agreements? The dematerialization of technology centered object can influence their way of formation, their execution and the balance of the agreements? What are their legal implications? If these agreements make reference to an specific and technical terminology of I.C.T., to the digital world, and if their object may be complex, in reality, the services generated by the Information Society are surrounding us in our daily life and are not different of the services we know since ever.

La liberté d'expression intervient dans différents domaines, et bénéficie de la protection des constitutions nationales ainsi que des conventions internationales. Toutefois, la question se pose de cette protection s'agissant du domaine commercial. La reconnaissance d'un discours commercial constitutionnellement et conventionnellement protégé est le fruit de nombreux revirements de jurisprudence, mais demeure encore contestée par une partie de la doctrine. Consacrer la liberté d'expression commerciale en tant que droit fondamental ne permet dès lors pas uniquement de renforcer sa protection, mais aussi de créer un rapprochement entre les droits fondamentaux et le droit économique. En effet, la nature économique du discours commercial est au coeur des débats dont il est l'objet, et l'amène à être confronté, d'une part aux autres droits et libertés, d'autre part aux droits de la propriété intellectuelle et des nouvelles technologies. La présence de la liberté d'expression commerciale au sein de ces derniers témoigne de la diffusion des droits fondamentaux dans l'ensemble du droit. Enfin, la reconnaissance de cette nouvelle liberté fondamentale, relevant à la fois des droits civils et des droits économiques, met en lumière un renouvellement des typologies de classification des droits fondamentaux. / The freedom of speech takes place in differents domains, and receives protection from the national constitutions and international conventions. However, concerning the commercial domain, the question of its protection may be asked. The recognition of a constitutional and conventional protection of the commercial speech is the result of many turnovers Court, but still remains disputed by some doctrine. To devote the commercial speech as a constitutional right can not only strengthen its protection, but also to create a connection between economy and the consitutional rights. Indeed, the economic nature of the commercial speech is in the middle of the discussions which it is the object, and causes it to be confronted on the one hand with the other constitutional rights, and on the other hand with the right of intellectual property and of new technologies. The presence of the commercial speech in these reflects the spread of the constitutional rights in the whole law. Finally, the recognition of this new constitutional right, under both civil and economic rights, highlights a revitalisation of the classifications' typologies of the constitutional rights.

A aprovação da Estratégia Global e do Plano de Ação sobre Saúde Pública, Inovação e Propriedade Intelectual (GSPOA), no âmbito da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS), está baseada na percepção da necessidade de melhoria nas condições de acesso dos países em desenvolvimento a medicamentos e outros produtos que atendam às suas necessidades específicas de saúde pública. Para tanto, a GSPOA está dividida em 8 elementos principais, 25 subitens, distribuídos por 108 pontos de ação, que visam aumentar a eficácia na promoção da inovação dentro dos países, através do desenvolvimento institucional, investimento e coordenação de áreas relevantes para a inovação em saúde. Nesse contexto, o escopo da presente investigação doutoral consiste em perscrutar os desafios para a plena implementação da referida política internacional no Brasil. Trata-se de estudo de caso - enquanto método de investigação qualitativa - que tem sua aplicação quando o pesquisador busca uma compreensão extensiva e com mais objetividade e validade conceitual, do que propriamente estatística. Perquiriu-se, destarte, políticas públicas nacionais, observando racionalmente se promoveram alguma alteração efetiva no âmbito interno, relacionadas com a pesquisa e desenvolvimento e ao acesso a medicamentos seguros, eficazes, de qualidade, e, principalmente, a preços acessíveis. Partindo de uma perspectiva crítica, e marcos teóricos consagrados, buscou-se situar a GSPOA num contexto de saúde transnacional em uma era de globalização, e os desafios para implementar mais completamente um direito à saúde, que transcenda medicamentos e exigências individuais, e que promova a reconsideração da relação sistêmica entre pesquisa farmacêutica, interesse comercial e assistência à saúde pública. Observamos que, para o período de 2008-2015, houve um processo de recrudescimento das políticas de inovação na seara da saúde, bem como êxito na promoção de iniciativas relativas à identificação de lacunas, e na formulação de estratégias que priorizam explicitamente a pesquisa e desenvolvimento em doenças negligenciadas de maior incidência no país. No entanto, verificou-se que tais ferramentas ainda são insuficientes para a efetiva superação do hiato tecnológico, e do déficit público referente às importações de insumos para o setor saúde. Um dos principais desafios relacionados com a inovação em saúde seria justamente colocar o sistema universal de saúde em posição de centralidade no âmbito das políticas do Estado. Em suma, tem-se que tais desafios têm origem orçamentário-financeira, normativa e institucional. Orçamentário-financeira porque o subfinanciamento do SUS é histórico, impactando nas demandas de pesquisa e desenvolvimento na seara sanitária. Quanto ao aspecto normativo, contata-se que opções equivocadas, especialmente quando da promulgação da Lei de Propriedade Industrial (nº 9.279/1996), comprometem a instrumentalização de políticas progressistas para que a propriedade intelectual responda melhor às reais necessidades de saúde pública. Em relação ao marco institucional, constatou-se que o diálogo entre os órgãos da Administração Pública, envolvidos na seara do acesso a medicamentos, em suas mais diversas interfaces, tem sua ação prejudicada diante da sobreposição dos interesses econômicos frente à segurança sanitária. A superação de tais entraves, para a plena implementação da GSPOA no Brasil, é deveras imprescindível, numa ação positiva no contexto do direito social à saúde e ao acesso universal a medicamentos / The approval of the Global Strategy and Plan of Action on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property (GSPOA) within the framework of the World Health Organization (WHO) is based on the perception of the need to improve the access conditions of developing countries to medicines and other products that meet your specific public health needs. To this end, GSPOA is divided into 8 main elements, 25 sub-items, distributed by 108 action points, aimed at increasing efficiency in promoting innovation within countries, through institutional development, investment and coordination of areas relevant to innovation in health. In this context, the scope of this doctoral research consists of examining the challenges for the full implementation of this international policy in Brazil. It is a case study - as a method of qualitative research - that has its application when the researcher seeks an extensive understanding and with more objectivity and conceptual validity, than properly statistical. National public policies have been sought, rationally observing whether they have promoted any effective changes at the internal level related to research and development and access to safe, effective, quality and, above all, affordable medicines. From a critical perspective, and with established theoretical frameworks, the aim was to situate the GSPOA in a transnational health context in an era of globalization, and the challenges to more fully implement a right to health, which transcends medicines and individual demands, and promotes the reconsideration of the systemic relationship between pharmaceutical research, commercial interest and public health assistance. We note that, for the period 2008-2015, there was a process of strengthening innovation policies in health, as well as successful initiatives to identify gaps, and the formulation of strategies that explicitly prioritize research and development in neglected diseases of greater incidence in the country. However, it was verified that such tools are still insufficient for the effective overcoming of the technological gap, and of the public deficit regarding imports of inputs for the health sector. One of the main challenges related to health innovation would be precisely to place the universal health system in a position of centrality within the scope of State policies. In summary, these challenges have a budgetary-financial, normative and institutional origin. Budgetary-financial because SUS underfunding is historical, impacting the demands of research and development in the sanitary seara. Regarding the normative aspect, it is suggested that misguided options, especially when promulgating the Industrial Property Law (No. 9.279 / 1996), compromise the use of progressive policies so that intellectual property responds better to the real needs of public health. In relation to the institutional framework, it was found that the dialogue between the Public Administration organs, involved in the area of access to medicines, in its most diverse interfaces, is affected by the overlapping of economic interests in relation to health security. The overcoming of such obstacles, for the full implementation of the GSPOA in Brazil, is indeed essential, in a positive action in the context of the social right to health and universal access to medicines

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1 Thesis Summary Private Enforcement of EU Competition Law Zuzana Šimeková 1. Starting points and goals of the thesis The main goal of my thesis is the application of the ever-evolving contemporary issues of private enforcement of the EU competition law, its developments in the legislative area and the decision- making practice of the European Commission and the Court of Justice of the European Union (the ECJ) to the pharmaceutical sector area. As regards the functioning of competition rules, the pharmaceutical sector found itself in the cross-hairs of the European Commission fairly recently. Its efforts resulted in the Pharmaceutical Sector Inquiry Final Report of 8 July 2009 (the Final Report). The primary subject-matter of my thesis is the assessment of the competition relationship dynamic between the originator and generic pharmaceutical companies, especially the degree by which the conduct by the originator pharmaceutical companies can delay market entry by the generic pharmaceutical companies and thereby negatively affect the consumers by (among other things) limiting availability of cheaper drugs. Despite the expectations of legal practitioners and academia, the European Commission did not rule in the Final Report whether the discovered conducts constitute violations of the EU competition law. The...