This dissertation seeks to build on the growing research literature concerning the intergenerational consequences of paternal imprisonment for their children. The existing literature has explored the cumulative process of disadvantage that can result in negative outcomes for these children. However, there is little evidence of the mechanisms by which this occurs. This dissertation explores the possibility of the mediators outlined by Kaplan’s (1986) self-referent theory and Giordano’s (2010) symbolic interactionsist approach by which the intergenerational transmission of delinquency occurs using a unique dataset with information collected from multiple generations. This longitudinal dataset compiles information from 2,722 adolescents aged 11-18 that report their race, gender, level of self-esteem, parental relations, parental deviant behavior/characteristics, and peers and teacher stigmatization. The dataset also contains information on their fathers, 4,212 of the first generation participants, who report the frequency and causes of their own incarceration. Various models were estimated to test whether the association between paternal incarceration and delinquency was significant, the mediating effects of negative self-feelings, agency, identity, and emotion, and the moderating effect of both race and gender. The results indicate that the association between paternal incarceration and delinquency is significant. The relationship is mediated by negative self-feelings, identity, and anger. Race did not moderate the relationship but gender did. These findings were independent of a litany of individual, family, and structural factors. The implications and significance of these findings are discussed.

Broadly, this dissertation study is an investigation of how mothers’ educational histories shape their parenting philosophies and behaviors and, through these intergenerational relationships, their children’s achievement during the transition to elementary school. Such an investigation is motivated by the life course paradigm as well as social capital theory and developmental research linking mothers’ and children’s educational trajectories through various parenting behaviors and strategies. Expanding upon this research base and the above stated research aim, the concept of diverging destinies highlights the importance of considering a specific set of life course pathways that are closely related to mothers’ educational attainment and their children’s achievement: employment and marriage. Thus, integrating mother’s employment and marriage into this dissertation study’s conceptual and analytic model, a second aim is to investigate how mothers’ education shapes the significance of women’s work and marital histories for their parenting and children’s academic trajectories. Findings from this dissertation provide support for the assertion that mothers’ and children’s academic pathways are linked through parenting. Findings also yield evidence for how mothers’ education augments the impact of marriage and employment on parenting and children’s achievement. Answering these questions has significance for sociological theory on the intergenerational transmission of advantage. / text

The current study examined the influence that perceived parenting, psychopathology, and the environment have on the development of projected parenting styles (defined for the study as the way participants predict they will parent when the opportunity arises) in college students. Overall, participants (N = 412) report that they will adopt a style of projected parenting that is similar to how they perceive their parents’ parenting. One exception is that participants of overprotective parents tended to project utilizing less overprotection, perhaps a sign of rejection for the control that was placed on them by their parents. Perceived paternal parenting was mediated by parental psychopathology, and surprisingly, perceived maternal psychopathology was found to be positively associated with positive projected parenting. Participants’ own psychopathology had no impact on projected parenting when examined simultaneously with the other variables.

This is a secondary research study and is part of a broader project on the relational experiences between older persons and younger people. The focus of this study is on the nature of intergenerational transmission from the perspective of older persons. Intergenerational transmission is the process by which knowledge, resources and support are transferred between generations. In terms of the current study, a specific focus was not undertaken as it was the intention to determine what would emanate from the data. Transmission can take place through teaching, observation, modelling and story-telling. This process can take place both from the older to the younger generation (downwards) and from the younger to the older generation (upwards). Downward transmission from older to younger persons may serve to satisfy the need for generativity, according to the lifespan development theory. A generative need is associated with the desire to teach and mentor the younger generation and to pass on a positive legacy. Intergenerational transmission is also facilitated if generational members adopt the perspective of the generational other, according to generational intelligence theory. This research is motivated by the observation that previous studies had for the most part been conducted internationally, with little focus on intergenerational transmission. Effective intergenerational relationships and transmission have the potential to fulfil the needs both of the younger and the older generations and therefore merit investigation. Secondary data were used for this research. Data from an original study that focused on the relational experiences of older persons in relation to young adults were used. The orginal study included a sample of 18 (7 men and 11 women) older persons from the Service Centre in Potchefstroom. They were aged between 60 and 84 and were either Afrikaans- or English-speaking. Inclusion criteria also stated that the older persons had to function independently and not demonstrate any visible cognitive disability. Previous particpation in research on relational experiences with younger generations was an exclusion criterion. Data were obtained by means of the Mmogo-method®. This is a visual research method that is based on projection. Participants are provided with materials such as clay, straws and colourful beads. Based on an open-ended prompt, namely to show how they experience their relationships with persons younger than 25, visual and textual data were obtained. Secondary data analyses were conducted by using sequential and visual analysis to explore the nature of transmission from the perspective of older persons. Trustworthiness was ensured during data analysis by various methods. Conceptual coherence of the topic was ensured by using literature to support the research question and themes that emerged from the data analysis. The method of data gathering was chosen with the specific intention of attaining rich personal perspectives as well as a collective experience from participants, thus ensuring data saturation. The researcher also attempted to demonstrate integrity and transparency throughout the process by providing a clear and detailed audit trail. Both upward and downward transmissions were perceived by the older generation as being present. Both these transmissions were described as being conditionally dependent. Conditions included age, competency, regular contact, using a person-centred approach and transferring knowledge in a systematic manner. Specific commodities were transmitted from the older persons to the younger people and vice versa. The older persons transmitted skills, emotional and physical care, values and the teachings of their heritage. The older persons, in their turn, experienced young people as transferring knowledge about technology and new innovations as well as positive attitudes to their elders. Some of the older people described how they used prescriptive methods when transmitting to the younger generation whereas others felt that more faciltative methods were more effective. The older generation experienced the response of the younger generation to downward transmission as either receptive or resistant. Descriptions of their motivation for transmission to the younger generation indicated that it might be generativity or a feeling of obligation. Findings from this study could be used to facilitate programmes that promote intergenerational relationships and transmission. Findings may also be valuable in terms of stimulating further research enquiry. / MSc (Clinical Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

This is a secondary research study and is part of a broader project on the relational experiences between older persons and younger people. The focus of this study is on the nature of intergenerational transmission from the perspective of older persons. Intergenerational transmission is the process by which knowledge, resources and support are transferred between generations. In terms of the current study, a specific focus was not undertaken as it was the intention to determine what would emanate from the data. Transmission can take place through teaching, observation, modelling and story-telling. This process can take place both from the older to the younger generation (downwards) and from the younger to the older generation (upwards). Downward transmission from older to younger persons may serve to satisfy the need for generativity, according to the lifespan development theory. A generative need is associated with the desire to teach and mentor the younger generation and to pass on a positive legacy. Intergenerational transmission is also facilitated if generational members adopt the perspective of the generational other, according to generational intelligence theory. This research is motivated by the observation that previous studies had for the most part been conducted internationally, with little focus on intergenerational transmission. Effective intergenerational relationships and transmission have the potential to fulfil the needs both of the younger and the older generations and therefore merit investigation. Secondary data were used for this research. Data from an original study that focused on the relational experiences of older persons in relation to young adults were used. The orginal study included a sample of 18 (7 men and 11 women) older persons from the Service Centre in Potchefstroom. They were aged between 60 and 84 and were either Afrikaans- or English-speaking. Inclusion criteria also stated that the older persons had to function independently and not demonstrate any visible cognitive disability. Previous particpation in research on relational experiences with younger generations was an exclusion criterion. Data were obtained by means of the Mmogo-method®. This is a visual research method that is based on projection. Participants are provided with materials such as clay, straws and colourful beads. Based on an open-ended prompt, namely to show how they experience their relationships with persons younger than 25, visual and textual data were obtained. Secondary data analyses were conducted by using sequential and visual analysis to explore the nature of transmission from the perspective of older persons. Trustworthiness was ensured during data analysis by various methods. Conceptual coherence of the topic was ensured by using literature to support the research question and themes that emerged from the data analysis. The method of data gathering was chosen with the specific intention of attaining rich personal perspectives as well as a collective experience from participants, thus ensuring data saturation. The researcher also attempted to demonstrate integrity and transparency throughout the process by providing a clear and detailed audit trail. Both upward and downward transmissions were perceived by the older generation as being present. Both these transmissions were described as being conditionally dependent. Conditions included age, competency, regular contact, using a person-centred approach and transferring knowledge in a systematic manner. Specific commodities were transmitted from the older persons to the younger people and vice versa. The older persons transmitted skills, emotional and physical care, values and the teachings of their heritage. The older persons, in their turn, experienced young people as transferring knowledge about technology and new innovations as well as positive attitudes to their elders. Some of the older people described how they used prescriptive methods when transmitting to the younger generation whereas others felt that more faciltative methods were more effective. The older generation experienced the response of the younger generation to downward transmission as either receptive or resistant. Descriptions of their motivation for transmission to the younger generation indicated that it might be generativity or a feeling of obligation. Findings from this study could be used to facilitate programmes that promote intergenerational relationships and transmission. Findings may also be valuable in terms of stimulating further research enquiry. / MSc (Clinical Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The present study examined the effect of family of origin characteristics on current marital satisfaction, within a sample of newlywed couples, using dyadic and mixed methods approaches to conceptualization, data collection, and data analysis.The data used to investigate this process--sometimes called intergenerational transmission--was collected in two phases. First, quantitative data in the form of close-ended questions was collected separately from each member of 190 newlywed couples via hard-copy questionnaires. These questionnaires included measures of family of origin characteristics (e.g., interparental conflict), current marital processes (e.g., conflict resolution style), and marital outcomes (e.g., marital satisfaction). Second, in-depth and open-ended questions were asked of 18 couples in semi-structured couple interviews. The 18 couples who were interviewed in phase two of the data collection represent a purposive sub-sample of the original 190 couples from phase one of data collection.Results of structural equation modeling of a conceptual model based on the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Cook & Kenny, 2005) indicated that the family or origin characteristics measured predicted a decrease in marital satisfaction, especially for wives. In addition, mixed evidence was found for the potential meditational role of conflict resolution style. Results of thematic coding of the interview data revealed that: a) families of origin serve as marriage role models in complex and multifaceted ways; b) there are other important models of marriage, aside from families of origin, that influence marital outcomes; c) it is likely that couples use a combination of different marriage role models to form their ideas of marriage (and therefore their marital outcomes); and d) it is possible that in some cases families of origin do not provide a marriage role model at all.Finally, results of a configural comparative analysis utilizing both the quantitative and qualitative data revealed that couples negotiate the pathway from their families of origin to their own marriages in diverse ways. Three distinct pathways were identified, including a "modeling" pathway, a "modified modeling" pathway, and a "compensation" pathway. Interpretations and implications of these findings are discussed. In addition, future directions for research in this area are suggested.

In most developed countries, the fertility levels of parents and children are positively correlated. This article analyzes the strength of the intergenerational transmission of family size over the last century, including a focus on this reproduction in large and small families. Using the large-scale French Family Survey (2011), we show a weak but significant correlation of approximately 0.12-0.15, which is comparable with levels in other Western countries. It is stronger for women than men, with a gender convergence across cohorts. A decrease in intergenerational transmission is observed across birth cohorts regardless of whether socioeconomic factors are controlled, supporting the idea that the family of origin has lost implicit and explicit influence on fertility choices. As parents were adopting the two-child family norm, the number of siblings lost its importance for having two children, but it continues to explain lower parity and, above all, three-child families. This suggests that the third child has increasingly become an "extra child" (beyond the norm) favored by people from large families.

Adverse childhood experiences-including parental and familial factors such as parental substance abuse, parental mental health problems, parental incarceration, parental unemployment and family violence, and personal factors such as physical, sexual, and emotional abuse- have been shown to strongly affect health risk behaviours in adulthood in the general population and are thus important in the health status of an individual. However, studies of people who use injection drugs have generally focused on disease seroprevalence and risk behaviours without considering their psychosocial histories.<p> In the 2000 Regina Seroprevalence and Risk Behaviours Study, 255 people who use injection drugs completed a standardized, confidential, and anonymous interview which included questions on adverse childhood experiences and injection-related and sexual risk behaviours. Associations among and between participants' reported adverse childhood experiences and subsequent risk behaviours were tested. Demographic factors were also considered, and general linear models of factors associated with risk behaviours were developed. <p> The rates of adverse childhood experiences and risk behaviours reported were very high. Several of the adverse childhood experiences studied were related to increased risk behaviours. The factors associated with injection-related risk behaviours were similar to those associated with sexual risk behaviours. The impact of adverse childhood experiences on risk behaviours was found to be cumulative; the more adverse childhood experiences the participants reported, the more risk behaviours they also reported. This information provides a unique opportunity to address these problems in the treatment and prevention of injection drug use. Supplementary research is needed to further elucidate the factors associated with high-risk behaviours in people who use injection drugs.

Adverse childhood experiences-including parental and familial factors such as parental substance abuse, parental mental health problems, parental incarceration, parental unemployment and family violence, and personal factors such as physical, sexual, and emotional abuse- have been shown to strongly affect health risk behaviours in adulthood in the general population and are thus important in the health status of an individual. However, studies of people who use injection drugs have generally focused on disease seroprevalence and risk behaviours without considering their psychosocial histories.<p> In the 2000 Regina Seroprevalence and Risk Behaviours Study, 255 people who use injection drugs completed a standardized, confidential, and anonymous interview which included questions on adverse childhood experiences and injection-related and sexual risk behaviours. Associations among and between participants' reported adverse childhood experiences and subsequent risk behaviours were tested. Demographic factors were also considered, and general linear models of factors associated with risk behaviours were developed. <p> The rates of adverse childhood experiences and risk behaviours reported were very high. Several of the adverse childhood experiences studied were related to increased risk behaviours. The factors associated with injection-related risk behaviours were similar to those associated with sexual risk behaviours. The impact of adverse childhood experiences on risk behaviours was found to be cumulative; the more adverse childhood experiences the participants reported, the more risk behaviours they also reported. This information provides a unique opportunity to address these problems in the treatment and prevention of injection drug use. Supplementary research is needed to further elucidate the factors associated with high-risk behaviours in people who use injection drugs.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A empatia, definida como a habilidade de compartilhar, compreender e de expressar o entendimento dos pensamentos e sentimentos dos outros, tem sido amplamente estudada. As trajetórias de desenvolvimento, que representam os diversos caminhos que o desenvolvimento do self pode tomar, também têm sido amplamente estudadas por pesquisadores transculturais, geralmente em contextos prototípicos e envolvendo três modelos de desenvolvimento do self: autonomia, interdependência e autonomia relacionada. Estudos anteriores mostraram que os participantes do Rio de Janeiro tendem para a autonomia relacionada, equlibrando características autônomas e relacionais, que são parte do nosso ambiente sociocultural, no qual habilidades sociais, como a empatia, são requeridas. O desenvolvimento da empatia pode ser relacionado à demanda ambiental por comportamentos, de acordo com aspectos sociodemográficos e valores compartilhados. Esta tese visa apresentar dados de 106 famílias do Rio de Janeiro: pai (idade média M = 51,6 anos), mãe (idade média M = 48,3 anos) e seus filhos jovens (17-25 anos, idade média M = 20,9 anos, 67,9% mulheres). A maioria dos pais, mães e dos filhos tinham Ensino Superior incompleto ou acima. Este estudo objetivou investigar a relação entre empatia e os modelos de desenvolvimento de self e a transmissão transgeracional em contexto não prototípico. O Inventário de Empatia de Falcone e colaboradores (IE) foi utilizado para avaliar a empatia. As Escalas de Desenvolvimento do Self de Ka&#287;itçiba&#351;i (EDS), (Self Autônomo (AutS), Self Interdependente (IntS) de Self Autônomo-Relacionado (ARS)) foram utilizadas para avaliar o modelo de desenvolvimento do self. Filhos também responderam quantas horas semanais conviviam com pais e mães. Testes t pareados mostraram, como esperado, que os escores de ARS foram os mais altos para todos os participantes. Correlações de Pearson foram feitas entre os escores de IE e EDS de ambos os pais e filhos. Os escores de ARS de pais, mães e filhos correlacionaram-se positivamente, assim como seus escores de IE. Examinando entre instrumentos, para pais e filhos, altos escores em ARS foram correlacionados a altos escores de IE. O tempo de convívio relatado entre pais e filhos correlacionou-se com IntS e IE dos pais. Para testar o modelo teórico proposto de ARS de pais e mães e dos filhos e a empatia de ambos os pais como preditores da empatia dos filhos, análises de regressão foram utilizadas. A empatia dos pais e das mães previu, separadamente, a empatia dos filhos, mas não em conjunto. Nenhum dos escores ARS dos participantes previu o IE dos filhos. Estes resultados favorecem a hipótese da prevalência de selves autônomo-relacionados no Rio de Janeiro. Pais, mães e filhos mostraram similaridades e tiveram relações importantes entre seus escores de EDS, assim como para o IE. Apesar de o modelo com todos juntos não ter sido significativo, separadamente o IE de pais e de mães predisse o IE dos filhos. Este resultado sugere que a empatia parental pode ter algum efeito sobre a dos filhos jovens, mas não o modelo parental de desenvolvimento do self, inesperadamente. De modo interessante, os pais apresentaram um papel importante no desenvolvimento de seus filhos / Empathy, defined as the ability to share, comprehend and express understanding of others thoughts and feelings, is broadly studied. Developmental trajectories, that represent the diverse pathways that self development can take, have also been widely studied by cross-cultural researchers, generally in prototypical contexts and involving three models of self development: autonomy, interdependency and autonomy-relatedness. Previous studies have shown Rio de Janeiros participants tend towards related-autonomy, balancing autonomous and relational characteristics that are part of our sociocultural environment, in which social abilities, like empathy, are required. The development of empathy can be related to environmental demand to behave, according to socio-demographic aspects and shared values. This dissertation aims to present data from 106 families from Rio de Janeiro: father (mean age M = 51.6 yrs.), mother (mean age M = 48.3 yrs.) and their grown-up children (17-25 yrs., mean age M = 20.9 yrs., 67.9% were daughters). Most fathers, mothers and adolescents had incomplete college degree or higher. This study aimed at investigating the relation between empathy and the models of self development and the transgenerational transmission in a non prototypical context. Falcone and collaborators Inventory of Empathy (IE) was used to assess empathy. Ka&#287;itçiba&#351;is Self Development Scales (SDS), (Autonomous Self (AutS), Interdependent Self (IntS) and Autonomous-Related Self (ARS) scales) were used to assess the model of self development. Adolescents also reported how many hours a week they lived with each one of their parents. Paired sample t tests showed, as expected, that scores on ARS were the highest scale for all participants. Pearson correlations were made between parents and adolescents IE and SDS scores. Fathers, mothers and adolescents ARS scores were all positively correlated, so as their IE scores. Examining between instruments, for both fathers and adolescents, higher ARS scores were correlated with their higher IE scores. The time adolescents reported living with fathers was correlated with fathers IntS and IE scores. In order to test the proposed theoretical model of parents and adolescents ARS and parents empathy as predictors of adolescents empathy, regression analyses were used. Fathers and mothers empathy predicted separately adolescents empathy, but not together. None of the participants ARS scores predicted adolescents IE. These results favor the hypothesis of prevalence of autonomous-related selves in Rio de Janeiro. Parents and adolescents showed similarities and had important relation between their SDS scores, so as for their IE. Despite not being significant in a model with them all together, separately, each fathers and mothers IE predicted adolescents IE. This result suggests parental empathy may have some effect on adolescents empathy, but not parental self development model, unexpectedly. Interestingly, fathers have shown an important role in their grown-up childrens development