<p>Sea urchins are fascinating marine creatures belonging to the phylum Echinodermata that serve as an essential ecological component and hold promise as a prospective source of therapeutics. However, sudden environmental changes, such as global warming and marine pollution, are placing significant stress on these organisms. To maintain natural resources and exploit sea urchins commercially, researchers are investigating aquaculture as a solution.</p> <p>This investigation discloses the physiological and immunological effects of physical and chemical stressors on one of the most common edible species of sea urchin, <em>Arbacia punctulata</em>. The study employed an elevated temperature as a physical stressor (1°C/day), lipopolysaccharides (LPS) inoculation as a chemical stressor (4µg/ml/day), and a combination of both LPS and elevated temperature as combined stressors. The results demonstrated a significant alteration in the total and differential coelomocyte count in the LPS-stressed group (p<0.05) and combined stressed group (p<0.05) followed by abnormal behavioral activity compared to those of control. Additionally, exposure to acute LPS exposure (at day 1 and day 3) and combined stressors led to an increase in phagocytic capacity (p<0.05) and lysozyme activity (p<0.05). Chronic exposure to LPS and combined stressors resulted in a decrease in gonadosomatic index (p<0.05, at day 10) and lysozyme activity (at day 7). A significant increase in coelomic fluid (CF) protein (p<0.05)was observed in the temperature-stressed group on days 5 and 10, while the combined stressed group had significantly more CF protein on days 1, 5, 7, and 10. An upregulation of Nf-kB gene expression was also observed (p>0.05) in temperature stressed group.  </p> <p>The study also revealed that sea urchins contain bioactive compounds that protect against external and internal injury, cell death, and body wall extract of sea urchin exhibited high antioxidant activity(p<0.05). Furthermore, it confirmed the antibacterial activity (p<0.05) of sea urchin (<em>Arbacia punctulata </em>and<em> Lytechinus variegatus</em>) body wall and coelomic fluid (cell-free plasma) extracts against ten pathogenic bacteria. The ethyl acetate body wall extract of both sea urchin species demonstrated higher inhibitory activity against the pathogenic bacteria tested. Overall sea urchin has potentials to meet the demand of food and medicine. </p>

<div>Grand Sable Dunes, as a perched dune field on the shore of Lake Superior, is a sensitive</div><div>ecosystem subject to continual disturbance. Repeated natural disturbances necessitate specialized</div><div>plant communities to develop. There were two objectives of my research in this system that are</div><div>treated in separate chapters. They include: 1) the quantification of successional changes in the</div><div>plant community over time, and the identification of population demography changes for rare</div><div>species within the dunes and 2) the evaluation of evaluate in pollinator species for two plants</div><div>Hieracium caespitosum (Yellow Hawkweed) and Lithospermum caroliniense (Carolina</div><div>Puccoon).</div><div>For the first objective, target plant community composition and structures (i.e. richness,</div><div>diversity) were quantified in 2011 and 2018 across Grand Sable Dunes in 1 m² quadrats.</div><div>Additionally, two relatively rare plant species (Cirsium pitcheri and Tanacetum bipinnatum)</div><div>were selected to quantify demographic (i.e. flowering, non-flowering) patterns and changes over</div><div>time. Samples for C. pitcheri and T. bipinnatum were acquired via circle-plots 2.5 m in diameter.</div><div>Population comparisons between 2011 and 2018 illustrate minimal change in community</div><div>structure (richness and diversity). Composition increased slightly with eight species occurring in</div><div>2018, but not 2011. Additionally, community similarity was high (~78%) between the two years.</div><div>C. pitcheri occurrence was inversely related to presence of other species. Plant community</div><div>composition in eastern and western survey zones within the dunes appear to be diverging. Minor</div><div>changes in the plant community composition and structures indicate successional changes have</div><div>occurred, but without major disturbance. This divergence in community composition may be</div><div>related to weather related incidents associated with Lake Superior disturbance potential.</div><div>The secondary objective concerns pollinator species on two similar plant species found in</div><div>the Grand Sable Dunes. Individuals of H. caespitosum and L. caroliniense were observed and all</div><div>floral visitors were identified to family. The majority of arthropod families were observed</div><div>10</div><div>visiting both H. caespitosum and L. caroliniense, with an absence of typically important families</div><div>(e.g. Apidae, Bombiliidae). Halictidae, Muscidae and Syrphidae were the most common visitors,</div><div>with L. caroliniense attracting far more Muscidae than their H. caespitosum competitors.</div><div>Overlap in visitors for both species was observed, which may lead to decreased reproduction in</div><div>L. caroliniense.</div>

Knowledge of the interactions among species and communities is vital for their management and protection. Increasingly, the role of marine protected areas in this regard is being recognised, primarily because of the potential for previously-harvested species to increase in density and biomass, and the linkages among species to be restored. Monitoring and research was conducted within and surrounding two marine reserves on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand – Te Tapuwae o Rongokako, near Gisborne, and Te Angiangi, south of Napier. The aim was to describe the biological characteristics of spiny lobsters (Jasus edwardsii) in the absence of fishing, and to describe the effects of fishing and protection on lobster populations and the communities of which they are a component. Diver and pot surveys showed that lobsters were significantly more abundant within the reserves than in the surrounding fisheries and that the populations were comprised of a larger proportion of legal-sized individuals. Higher female fecundity within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve compared with the surrounding fishery was proposed to be primarily a result of increased availability of large males within the reserve. The impact of the fishery on lobsters was also evidenced in the lower tail width to carapace length ratio of the fished population compared to the population within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve, due to the minimum legal size for Jasus edwardsii in New Zealand being based on tail width. The largest tagging study ever to be conducted in a New Zealand marine reserve showed that sublegal male lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve were growing on average faster than the same sized individuals outside the reserve, potentially as a result of the effects of handling and / or size-selective fishing. A decrease in growth rate over time was recorded in male lobsters within the reserve, which coincided with an increase in catch per unit effort and may indicate that density-dependent effects are operating. Distinct seasonal movements of tagged lobsters were recorded, with the vast majority of movements taking place within reefs. Where the boundaries of the reserve crossed reef habitat, significant movement of lobsters across the boundaries occurred. Lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve not only exhibited cannibalistic behaviour but foraged during the day, including on intertidal reef platforms at high tide, potentially as a behavioural response to increased competition for food – behaviour not previously reported for this species. Outside the reserve, lobster bait apparently provided an alternative protein source but despite this supplementation of diet, these lobsters were in poorer nutritional condition, as evidenced by their lower body weights relative to carapace length and tail width for both sexes. Lobsters outside the reserve were also significantly more affected by a bacterial infection associated with handling, than lobsters within the reserve. These findings have significant implications for fisheries management and for the design and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). This study demonstrates that many of the biological parameters used in evaluating harvest strategies in the New Zealand lobster fishery may be biased unless collected from populations with a natural size structure, such as may occur within marine protected areas.

Knowledge of the interactions among species and communities is vital for their management and protection. Increasingly, the role of marine protected areas in this regard is being recognised, primarily because of the potential for previously-harvested species to increase in density and biomass, and the linkages among species to be restored. Monitoring and research was conducted within and surrounding two marine reserves on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand – Te Tapuwae o Rongokako, near Gisborne, and Te Angiangi, south of Napier. The aim was to describe the biological characteristics of spiny lobsters (Jasus edwardsii) in the absence of fishing, and to describe the effects of fishing and protection on lobster populations and the communities of which they are a component. Diver and pot surveys showed that lobsters were significantly more abundant within the reserves than in the surrounding fisheries and that the populations were comprised of a larger proportion of legal-sized individuals. Higher female fecundity within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve compared with the surrounding fishery was proposed to be primarily a result of increased availability of large males within the reserve. The impact of the fishery on lobsters was also evidenced in the lower tail width to carapace length ratio of the fished population compared to the population within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve, due to the minimum legal size for Jasus edwardsii in New Zealand being based on tail width. The largest tagging study ever to be conducted in a New Zealand marine reserve showed that sublegal male lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve were growing on average faster than the same sized individuals outside the reserve, potentially as a result of the effects of handling and / or size-selective fishing. A decrease in growth rate over time was recorded in male lobsters within the reserve, which coincided with an increase in catch per unit effort and may indicate that density-dependent effects are operating. Distinct seasonal movements of tagged lobsters were recorded, with the vast majority of movements taking place within reefs. Where the boundaries of the reserve crossed reef habitat, significant movement of lobsters across the boundaries occurred. Lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve not only exhibited cannibalistic behaviour but foraged during the day, including on intertidal reef platforms at high tide, potentially as a behavioural response to increased competition for food – behaviour not previously reported for this species. Outside the reserve, lobster bait apparently provided an alternative protein source but despite this supplementation of diet, these lobsters were in poorer nutritional condition, as evidenced by their lower body weights relative to carapace length and tail width for both sexes. Lobsters outside the reserve were also significantly more affected by a bacterial infection associated with handling, than lobsters within the reserve. These findings have significant implications for fisheries management and for the design and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). This study demonstrates that many of the biological parameters used in evaluating harvest strategies in the New Zealand lobster fishery may be biased unless collected from populations with a natural size structure, such as may occur within marine protected areas.

Knowledge of the interactions among species and communities is vital for their management and protection. Increasingly, the role of marine protected areas in this regard is being recognised, primarily because of the potential for previously-harvested species to increase in density and biomass, and the linkages among species to be restored. Monitoring and research was conducted within and surrounding two marine reserves on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand – Te Tapuwae o Rongokako, near Gisborne, and Te Angiangi, south of Napier. The aim was to describe the biological characteristics of spiny lobsters (Jasus edwardsii) in the absence of fishing, and to describe the effects of fishing and protection on lobster populations and the communities of which they are a component. Diver and pot surveys showed that lobsters were significantly more abundant within the reserves than in the surrounding fisheries and that the populations were comprised of a larger proportion of legal-sized individuals. Higher female fecundity within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve compared with the surrounding fishery was proposed to be primarily a result of increased availability of large males within the reserve. The impact of the fishery on lobsters was also evidenced in the lower tail width to carapace length ratio of the fished population compared to the population within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve, due to the minimum legal size for Jasus edwardsii in New Zealand being based on tail width. The largest tagging study ever to be conducted in a New Zealand marine reserve showed that sublegal male lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve were growing on average faster than the same sized individuals outside the reserve, potentially as a result of the effects of handling and / or size-selective fishing. A decrease in growth rate over time was recorded in male lobsters within the reserve, which coincided with an increase in catch per unit effort and may indicate that density-dependent effects are operating. Distinct seasonal movements of tagged lobsters were recorded, with the vast majority of movements taking place within reefs. Where the boundaries of the reserve crossed reef habitat, significant movement of lobsters across the boundaries occurred. Lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve not only exhibited cannibalistic behaviour but foraged during the day, including on intertidal reef platforms at high tide, potentially as a behavioural response to increased competition for food – behaviour not previously reported for this species. Outside the reserve, lobster bait apparently provided an alternative protein source but despite this supplementation of diet, these lobsters were in poorer nutritional condition, as evidenced by their lower body weights relative to carapace length and tail width for both sexes. Lobsters outside the reserve were also significantly more affected by a bacterial infection associated with handling, than lobsters within the reserve. These findings have significant implications for fisheries management and for the design and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). This study demonstrates that many of the biological parameters used in evaluating harvest strategies in the New Zealand lobster fishery may be biased unless collected from populations with a natural size structure, such as may occur within marine protected areas.

Knowledge of the interactions among species and communities is vital for their management and protection. Increasingly, the role of marine protected areas in this regard is being recognised, primarily because of the potential for previously-harvested species to increase in density and biomass, and the linkages among species to be restored. Monitoring and research was conducted within and surrounding two marine reserves on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand – Te Tapuwae o Rongokako, near Gisborne, and Te Angiangi, south of Napier. The aim was to describe the biological characteristics of spiny lobsters (Jasus edwardsii) in the absence of fishing, and to describe the effects of fishing and protection on lobster populations and the communities of which they are a component. Diver and pot surveys showed that lobsters were significantly more abundant within the reserves than in the surrounding fisheries and that the populations were comprised of a larger proportion of legal-sized individuals. Higher female fecundity within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve compared with the surrounding fishery was proposed to be primarily a result of increased availability of large males within the reserve. The impact of the fishery on lobsters was also evidenced in the lower tail width to carapace length ratio of the fished population compared to the population within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve, due to the minimum legal size for Jasus edwardsii in New Zealand being based on tail width. The largest tagging study ever to be conducted in a New Zealand marine reserve showed that sublegal male lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve were growing on average faster than the same sized individuals outside the reserve, potentially as a result of the effects of handling and / or size-selective fishing. A decrease in growth rate over time was recorded in male lobsters within the reserve, which coincided with an increase in catch per unit effort and may indicate that density-dependent effects are operating. Distinct seasonal movements of tagged lobsters were recorded, with the vast majority of movements taking place within reefs. Where the boundaries of the reserve crossed reef habitat, significant movement of lobsters across the boundaries occurred. Lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve not only exhibited cannibalistic behaviour but foraged during the day, including on intertidal reef platforms at high tide, potentially as a behavioural response to increased competition for food – behaviour not previously reported for this species. Outside the reserve, lobster bait apparently provided an alternative protein source but despite this supplementation of diet, these lobsters were in poorer nutritional condition, as evidenced by their lower body weights relative to carapace length and tail width for both sexes. Lobsters outside the reserve were also significantly more affected by a bacterial infection associated with handling, than lobsters within the reserve. These findings have significant implications for fisheries management and for the design and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). This study demonstrates that many of the biological parameters used in evaluating harvest strategies in the New Zealand lobster fishery may be biased unless collected from populations with a natural size structure, such as may occur within marine protected areas.

Bumble bees (Bombus spp.: Apidae) are valuable pollinators of many crop and wildflower species. However, in some situations their potential is limited. Evaluation of, and management to improve bumble bee efficacy should include spatial information which is currently limited. Distance and direction determine the success of gene flow via pollen cross-over within and between plant populations at several scales. Studies of movement by bumble bees at large scales in semi-natural and intensively managed habitats are scarce. Few studies of bumble bee dispersal from the nest exist, particularly in relation to crops. At a small scale, directional rather than random movement between flowers has benefits for pollen flow. Results to date of directionality studies at small scales and their interpretation are inconsistent. The purpose of this thesis was to assess distances and directions moved by foraging bumble bees at a range of scales in two contrasting farm habitats in order to predict their pollination potential. A novel method was developed to mark automatically all the occupants of nests of bumble bees B. terrestris (L.) placed around a Lucerne seed crop Medicago sativa L. in New Zealand. Reobservation data from eight nests showed that of bumble bees which foraged within the crop, 81 % travelled ≤ 50 m and 56% ≤ 20 m from their nest. Results should be interpreted with extreme caution because fewer than 1 % of bumble bees marked at nests were reobserved in the crop. Because it was not established where the other 99% of the bumble bees went, foraging areas for nests could not be calculated as anticipated. Theories to explain the non-specificity of bumble bees to the crop include; resource depletion near nests, competition with honey bees in the crop, or an evolved strategy to disperse in order to minimise nest predation. Lucerne flowers contained a significantly lower concentration of sugar in nectar, and significantly fewer pollen grains than did those of purple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L., a species on which bumble bees appeared to forage in preference Lucerne. The higher rewards offered by L. salicaria may have diverted bumble bees from the less-rewarding Lucerne crop. In a Norwegian meadow system, all foraging bouts by bumble bees B. lucorum (L.) within a patch of wood cranesbill flowers Geranium sylvaticum L. were random with respect to direction. This result is not consistent with predictions, based on optimal foraging theory, that movement should be directional to enable optimal pollen flow, and to avoid revisitation of just-emptied flowers by the pollinator. A medium-scale study of several bumble bee species moving between patches of northern wolfsbane Aconitum septentrionale Koelle in Norway revealed considerable loyalty by bumble bees to patches in which they were marked. In a different landscape-scale study (over 5 ha), several bumble bees exhibited a high degree of loyalty to areas in which they were marked (87% were reobserved ≤ 50 m from marking points). These restricted movement patterns are discussed in terms of potential pollen flow. Of 260 bumble bees marked, only five were recorded crossing between meadows, which could be a result of innate loyalty to small forage areas, an artefact of the sampling technique used, or forest boundaries acting as physical impediments to movement. In the future, spatial data of the type collected in this thesis will aid in the management of bumble bee populations to achieve both commercial and conservation goals. Spatial data can be applied to predict the optimal placement of artificially-reared nests, predict suitable isolation distances for pure seed crops, and aid in the positioning of supplementary forage sources and nest-site refuges.

The study covered the period August 1971 to February 1975 and was conducted in three blackcurrant plots. One plot comprised mature bushes that were pruned but not sprayed during the course of the study; the other two plots were subject to full normal managerial practices including spraying. Information on various aspects of the biology was revealed and this clarified some of the areas about which little was known previously especially for the Southern Hemisphere. Fecundity is 100 eggs per female, fertility in the field is at least 97% and predation of eggs is always less than 5%. There are six larval instars. Fungi of the genera Beauveria and Cordyceps cause up to 10% mortality of the larvae. This is the first record of the latter genus infecting S. tipuliformis. A sampling plan was developed to enable estimates of the population of S. tipuliformis at various stages to be obtained. This gave information on the distribution of stages of the life cycle within the canes according to the age of the wood. These samples also permitted the construction of life tables for three generations of S. tipuliformis in one plot and one generation in the others. Replication both in space and time was therefore achieved and the results were further replicated by considering each plot as nine separate blocks. The dispersion of the egg and larval stages was tested and found to fit the negative binomial model. A common k, kc, was calculated for the egg stage and the larval c stage. Though not vital to this present study various transformations of the raw data were investigated to see which were most appropriate in order to stabilise the variance for analyses in which such suitability is vital. The logarithmic transformation based on the k parameter of the k negative model [log (x + k/2)) was the most successful. The mortality of the eggs was quite low but a significant proportion of the emerging larvae fail to colonise the pith of a cane. This mortality is density dependent. Other mortalities including winter pruning are density independent or random. The key stage of the life cycle revealed by the life tables is the adult survival. This survival and the consequent population trend index determined from the number of eggs laid was found to be affected by the prevailing weather during the flight period especially during the last week of November and the first two weeks of December.

<p>Mayflies are important macroinvertebrate members of steam communities and are highly sensitive to agricultural insecticides. In this dissertation I sought to explore whether Heptageniidae<i> </i>mayflies in Indiana have evolved greater tolerance to clothianidin, a neonicotinoid insecticide that has been widely applied over the predominant corn and soybean crops of the state for the last 20 years. Over the five chapters of this dissertation, I investigate different aspects of the effects of clothianidin on mayfly populations. First, I collected mayfly populations from streams around the state across a gradient of agricultural landscape to see if proximity to corn and soybean crops was associated with tolerance to the insecticide. I found significant variation in tolerance between the populations but only connected it to land use for one species and one insecticide. Second, I investigated the potential for increases in predation rates due to exposure to low concentrations of clothianidin by both a vertebrate and invertebrate predator. Sublethal exposure did increase the risk of predation by the invertebrate predator but not the vertebrate. Third, I collected four populations of mayflies and placed them in a common stream which is heavily impacted by agricultural runoff. The most tolerant of the four populations had the highest survival rates and was native to the polluted stream, suggesting that it was best adapted to the local conditions. Finally, the last chapter is a discussion of the factors influencing the evolution of contaminant tolerance, the implications for biomonitoring, and a series of recommendations for incorporating evolved tolerance into biomonitoring practices. Collectively, this work suggests that the lethal and sublethal effects of clothianidin exposure create conditions suitable for the evolution of tolerance in Heptageniid mayflies. While there are already differences in tolerance between populations, it seems likely that mayfly pesticide tolerance will continue to increase as pesticides continue to impact aquatic ecosystems. </p>

<p>  </p> <p>Mutations drive evolution, generating variation that selection can act upon. Germline mutations are heritable genetic alterations that occur in the gametes prior to fertilization and until embryogenesis. The study of germline mutations is vital to understanding the genetic basis of heritable diseases and evolution. Somatic mutations are genetic alterations across the body that arise post-fertilization in non-gametic cells. Although somatic mutations in most animals cannot be inherited, they can still significantly affect an organism's reproductive success. In humans, for example, cancers can be the result of somatic mutations. Somatic mutations originate from both exogenous mutagens (e.g. UV radiation) and endogenous processes (e.g. DNA replication, aging). Beyond their origins, we know little about the distribution and frequency of somatic mutations across Animalia. Honey bees provide a unique model for the study of somatic mutations as they are haplodiploid: males come from unfertilized eggs and are haploid, while females come from fertilized eggs and are diploid. It is therefore possible to sequence and robustly identify somatic mutations in haploid males. I have developed a unique exploratory study to elucidate the distribution of somatic mutation accumulation in honey bee drones. With this, I aim to investigate processes generating somatic mutations. Our findings demonstrate that variance in somatic mutational load is better captured across individuals rather than within individuals (across tissues). I provide a comprehensive tissue atlas of somatic mutagenesis in haploids. Our findings drive us to enhance our view of mutagenesis from the tissue level down to the cellular level. </p>