I strävan efter att minska textilindustrins omfattande miljöpåverkan utvecklas nya metoder för textilåtervinning. Idag återvinns bomullstyg av Renewcell på deras anläggning i Kristinehamn. Den återvunna produkten, Circulose®, är en dissolvingmassa som kan användas för att spinna nya viskosfibrer som man i sin tur kan använda för att göra nya kläder. Föreliggande arbete är en förstudie om möjligheten att optimera Renewcellls återvinningsprocess. Arbetet inkluderar en optimering av massaprocessen vilket resulterar i en mer effektiv process som minskar förbrukningen av processkemikalier. / To reduce the extensive environmental impact of the textile industry, new methods for textile recycling are being developed. Today, cotton-based fabric is recycled by Renewcell at their facility in Kristinehamn. The recycled product, Circulose®, is a dissolving pulp that can be used to spin new viscose fibers, which in turn can be used to make new clothes. The present work is a feasibility study on the possibility of optimizing Renewcell's recycling process. The work includes an optimization of the pulp process, which results in a more efficient process with a reduced consumption of process chemicals.

Avloppsreningsanläggningar är idag utformade för att rena bort föroreningar i form av organiskt material, suspenderade fasta ämnen och växtnäringsämnen (exempelvis fosfater och nitrater). Myndighet i Sverige har satt upp restriktioner och lagar gällande hur mycket av de olika föroreningarna som det är okej att utgående vatten innehåller. En typ av föroreningar som dock inte blivit undersökt och som inte har lika tydliga restriktioner och utsläppslagar är utsläpp av läkemedelsrester och aktiva läkemedelssubstanser. Den största andelen av läkemedelsrester som återfinns i avloppsvatten är på grund av mänsklig konsumtion. Människan har under evolutionen alltid strävat efter att hitta nya metoder för att leva längre, må bra och undvika smärta. Under de senaste årtiondena har konsumtionen av läkemedel ökat, detta på grund av behandling av åldersrelaterade och kroniska sjukdomar, i kombination med en ändrad och mer generös receptutskrivning från sjukhusen.  Läkemedlen som vi konsumerar kommer inte att brytas ner helt av våra kroppar, och restprodukterna kommer utsöndras vida urinen. Urinen kommer sedan, vi avloppen, komma till ett av de lokala avloppsreningsverken, som idag inte har förmåga att rena bort de aktiva läkemedelssubstanserna från vattnet. Det kommer sedan att påverka omgivande vattendrag, djurliv och på lång sikt även ekosystemen.  Tidigare studier har genomförts med syfte att hitta miljövänliga och hållbara metoder för att rena vattnet från mikroföroreningar och läkemedelsrester. En av teknikerna som undersökts är oxidation och adsorption processer. Ett sätt att genomföra oxidation är genom ozonering, som genom sin höga oxidationspotential och miljövänliga slutprodukter i form av bland annat syre gör den till ett miljövänligt alternativ. Vad gäller adsorption processer så är aktivt kol en av de vanligaste teknikerna som används idag och det har visat på goda resultat. Ett vanligt förekommande problem med aktiva kolfilter är att det måste bytas ut när det blivit mättade vilket både kostar pengar, arbetskostnader och en avstannad vattenprocess.  Denna avhandling behandlar utvärdering och process optimering av vattenrening vid behandling av ozon med avseende att rena vatten från aktiva läkemedelssubstanser. För att göra detta har två pilotanläggningar för vattenrening, placerade på två olika platser i Sverige (plats 1 och plats 2) undersökts och optimerats. Båda systemen är utrustade med ett sandfiltersteg, ozonerigssteg anst ett avslutade poleringssteg i form av aktivkolbädd. De två olika systemen är kopplade så inkommande vatten är utgående vatten från likat avloppsreningsverk. Undersökta variabler är injicerad ozonhalt (uteffekt baserat på ozongeneratorns kapacitet) och i ett av fallen, vattenflödet genom systemet. Syftet med arbetet var att hitta optimala driftförhållande med avseende på reducerad mängd läkemedelssubstanser i vatten och energiförbrukning.  Resultaten visade att den parameter som influerade resultatet mest var mängden ozon som injicerades till systemet. Systemet som var installerat på plats 2 var det mest effektiva baserat på både energiförbrukning per m3 vatten och med avseende på reningsgraden på vattnet. Systemet rena vattnet från läkemedelssubstanser upp till mellan 95–100%, vid ett vattenflöde på 16 m3/h och en uteffekt av ozongeneratorn på 75%.  Systemet på plats 1 hade en halverad ozonkapacitet jämfört med systemet på plats 2 och visade inte på fullt lika effektiv rening. Vattnet som bäst renat till 80%, vid ett vattenflöde på 2,5 m3/h och en uteffekt av ozongeneratorn på 100% (motsvarar 50% på plats 2). / Wastewater treatment plants today are designed to reduce pollutants in the form of organic material, suspended solids, plant nutrients (phosphates and nitrates) and microbes from the water. Governments have set up restrictions and laws around in what amount release of different pollutants is acceptable or not. But one type of pollutant that have not been investigated to the same degree is the micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals or active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The biggest amount of APIs release to water is due to human consumption of medicine. Humans have during the evolution strived to find new ways to live longer, stay healthier and avoid pain. Over the last decade there has been an increased consumption of medicine, due to the need to treated ageing related and chronic diseases, together with a change in the clinical practice leading to a more generous prescription approach.  The APIs that we consume will not be totally decomposed in our body, which means that we sooner or later will exude it in form of example urine. The urine will end up in the local WWTP, which today, does not have the ability to reduce APIs in large amount. Due to this, release of APIs to surrounding watercourse will come to affect the animals and eco-system.  Many studies have been done with a goal to find an environmentally friendly way to reduce micropollutants from the wastewater. One of the techniques that has been investigated is oxidation (e.g., ozonation) and adsorption (e.g., activated carbon) processes. Ozonation is an ideal technique due to the high oxidation potential of ozone, environmentally friendly end-products (e.g. oxygen) and low sludge production. Several reports elucidated that application of ozonation for wastewater can have a reducing effect of APIs, and a more studied technique for removal of micropollutants and APIs is activated carbon (AC). But AC has some common struggle, one example is that it works as a filter and that it due to adsorption can be saturated.  The project contained evaluation and process optimization of water purification by oxidation with ozone with aim to purifying water from APIs. To do this, two pilot plants for water purification, located in two different locations in Sweden (location 1 and location 2) will be evaluated and optimized. Both systems are equipped with a sand filter, ozonation step and a polishing step of activated carbon. The two different systems are connected so that incoming water to the system, is outgoing water from a local wastewater treatment plant. The variables evaluated are injected ozone concentration (output power based on the capacity of the ozone generator) and in one of the cases, the water flow through the system. The purpose of the work was to find optimal operating conditions regarding reduced amount of drug substances in water and energy consumption.  The system installed at location 2 is the most effective system from a perspective of both micropollutants reduced and energy used per m3. The API reduction is between 95-100% for the outgoing water and the ozonation step stands for 95-100% of that reduction, which increases the lifetime of the GAC filter. For optimal process settings a water flow of 16 m3/h and an out effect of 75% from the ozone generator was determined.  At location 1 the APIs reduction achieved was 80% after ozonation and 100% after the GAC filtration, and the process settings were 100% out effect (correspond to 50% at location 2) on the ozone generator and a water flow of 2.5 m3/h.

Process scale-up studies are, generally, non-linear. This basically means that it is not possible to take a chemical process in the laboratory and bring it to a pilot or production plant by simply increasing the quantities of chemicals and the equipment size proportionally. There are many physico-chemical processes involved (such as reaction kinetics, fluid mechanics and thermodynamics), plus over the years a myriad of different equipment (stirrers, baffles, jackets...) have been developed with different geometrical and performance characteristics. Therefore, scale-up studies involve engineering issues, economic considerations, and risks assessment to reduce them to acceptable levels for the successful commercial scale implementation. Mixing and heat transfer assessments are often required when scaling a process, troubleshooting poor performance or transferring from one plant to another. This is because the rates of these physico-chemical processes are a function of the details of the equipment set-up and operating conditions, so they can vary widely from one vessel to another. Due to this series of drawbacks and the large number of parameters involved, there is the increasing interest to make use of scientific approaches in the early stages of process development, both modelling and simulation tools along with experimentation to try to predict the behaviour of chemical processes on a larger scale and, consequently, reduce costs and efforts from the beginning. This project was aimed at implementing a method to characterize production equipment and calculate its heat transfer coefficient experimentally from a thermal test. Both the created database, which contains information of about 70 reactors, and the heat transfer coefficient values are then used in different case studies with the objective of predicting the behaviour of the chemical processes examined at different scales: laboratory, pilot and production. The scale-up parameters calculation is detailed for each project with emphasis on the results and conclusions regarding the mixing and heat transfer performances.

The allies success in the hundred days offensive on the western front can be linked to the theory of combined arms. Studies including the operation but also studies of the theory itself shows this. It also appears that research on chemical weapons, specifically during the first world war, indicates that the development progressed rapidly and had a major impact on the conducted warfare and the psychological mind of the soldiers. On the other hand, no studies have been found that illustrate how the British units used chemical weapons in combination with the theory of combined arms.  The purpose of this study is to see how the British use of chemical weapons during the hundred days offensive during World War I is understood through Robert Leonhard's theory of combined arms. The study will be based on a qualitative text analysis and its analysis empirical data texts are based on the British units using chemical weapons during world war I. This is linked to Robert Leonhard's theory of combined arms, precisely to create an understanding of the British use of chemical weapons during the hundred days offensive.  Based on the discussion of the results, the essay's purpose and research question and the answer to the question, the author of this study concludes that the use of chemical weapons by the British during the hundred days offensive during World War I is understood through Robert Leonhard's theory of combined arms.

Efterfrågan på litiumjonbatterier (LiB) har ökat genom åren i takt med att kortlivade elektriska apparater och elfordon har blivit alltmer populära. Det är av stort intresse att återvinna dessa batterier när de har blivit uttjänta, men återvinningskapaciteten för LiB är väldigt undermåttlig. Dessutom är de nuvarande återvinningsmetoderna som finns tillgängliga inte särskilt miljövänliga. Denna rapport undersöker en miljövänlig potentiell återvinningsprocess för litiumjonbatterier föreslagen av Dr. Kai Zhang och Dr. Xiong Xiao. Processen är en kontinuerlig, sluten, hydrometallurgisk process som använder ultraljudsassisterad lakning med organiska syror, tillsammans med en ny värmeväxlingsmetod för att förbättra processens energieffektivitet. Syftet med projektet är att ge en bakgrund till återvinning av litiumjonbatterier, samt att utvärdera den nuvarande marknaden för återvinning av litiumjonbatterier för att identifiera behovet av nya återvinningsprocesser. Vidare var syftet också att undersöka möjligheten att omvandla lågtempererad spillvärme som genereras från processen till energi med en reaktiv vätska. Den reaktiva vätskan bestod av N2O4 somdeltog i reversibla reaktioner. Ekonomin för processen utvärderades genom att uppskatta energiförbrukningen och förbrukningen av kemikalier samt svart massa. Återvinning av lågtempererad spillvärme uppnåddes med den reaktiva vätskan som presterade bättre än när den jämfördes med en identisk men icke-reaktiv vätska. Dock identifierades flera områden som behöver förbättras för ytterligare optimering. Det konstaterades att processen inte skulle vara lönsam om försäljning av återvunna metaller var den enda intäktskällan. En återvinningsavgift föreslogs för att göra vinst. Det finns flera osäkerheter kring processens genomförbarhet och ytterligare forskning och experimentell testning krävs. / The demand for lithium-ion batteries (LiB) have increased over the years, as short-lived electric devices and electric vehicles are becoming more popular. It is of great interest to recycle these batteries when they have reached their end of life, however the recycling capacity of LiB is seriously lacking. Also, the current recycling methods available are not particularly environmentally friendly. This report examines a potential environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery recycling process proposed by Dr. Kai Zhang and Dr. Xiong Xiao. The process is a continuous closed-loop hydrometallurgical process that utilizes ultrasonic assisted leaching with organic acids, along with a novel heat exchange method to improve the energy efficiency of the process. The aim of the project is to give a background to lithium-ion battery recycling, along with evaluating the current lithium-ion battery recycling market, to identify the need of new lithium-ion battery recycling processes. Furthermore, the aim was also to investigate the possibility in converting low-temperature waste heat generated from the process into power by utilizing a reactive fluid. The reactive fluid consisted of N2O4 involved in reversible reactions. The power consumption and consumption of chemicals and black mass of the process was estimated, and from this the economics of the process was evaluated. Low-temperature waste heat recovery was achieved with the reactive fluid, which performed better than when compared to an identical but frozen fluid. However, several areas in need of improvement were identified for further optimization. The process was concluded to not be profitable if only sales from recycled metals were to be the sole source of revenue. Charging a recycling fee was proposed to make profit. There are several uncertainties concerning the feasibility of the process and further research and experimental testing is required.

I takt med att behovet av att minska utsläppen av växthusgasen ökar, ökar även intresset för negativa utsläpp. En lovande teknik för att uppnå negativa utsläpp är koldioxidlagring från biomassa, även kallad BECCS (Bio-Energy Carbon Capture and Storage). Trots teknologins mognad är de stora energibehoven vid lösningsmedelsregenerering ett hinder för storskalig implementering. I den här studien utforskas den relativt okända kinetiken för lösningsmedelsregenerering av kaliumkarbonat i ett steg för att optimera processen. Dessutom undersöks möjligheten att använda vanadin(V)oxid som katalysator för att förbättra desorptionshastigheten. Experimentella analyser utfördes i en sats-reaktor och gick ut på att undersöka förändringen av lösningsmedlets loading över tid genom regelbundna titreringar. Utöver detta undersöks den påverkan som temperatur och omrörning har på desorptionshastigheten. Experimenten utförs vid atmosfärstryck och temperaturer från 80°C till 100°C. Resultaten visade på god repeterbarhet trots svårigheter med temperaturöverskridningar. Desorptionshastigheten var lägre vid 80°C och 90°C än vid 100°C, men de logaritmiska hastighetskonstanterna följde inte en linjär relation mot temperaturinverserna vilket antyder att reaktionen är begränsad av massöverföring. Vidare påverkade inte användandet av en katalysator desorptionskinetiken märkbart, vilket än en gång antyder ett massöverföringsberoende. Slutligen visades ingen märkbar skillnad i desorptionshastighet trots olika omrörningshastigheter. Detta beror troligen på den redan höga massöverföringen som sker vid kokpunkten. Sammanfattningsvis bidrar denna studie med insikter för att förbättra effektiviteten hos regenereringen av lösningsmedel vid BECCS, vilket är avgörande för att motverka utsläppen och möta utmaningarna med klimatförändringarna.

Organic esters are an important class of industrial and commercial chemicals that can be found in solvents, plasticizer, food flavours, detergents, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals. The most common way to synthesis organic esters is with esterification or transesterification. Where esterification was the chosen method in this thesis.  This thesis provides a techno-economic assessment on the production of propyl acetate and glycerol trivalerate through different continuous routes that is than compared with batch production under the same conditions. Simulations was done on trivalerate due to limited literature and data on pentaerythritol tetravalerate. Different continuous technologies that have been assessed in this thesis was plug flow reactor (PFR), Reactive Distillation (RD), and Reactive – Extractive Distillation (RED). The production of mono- and polyol esters with different unit operators was simulated in Aspen Plus V.14. Techno-Economic analysis was conducted with APEA (Aspen Process Economic Analyzer), where cost of raw materials, products, and utilities was inserted to evaluate annual operating cost and product sale. Reaction kinetic for esterification of trivalerate was estimated by obtained values from simulations of a Gibbs reactor in Aspen Plus at four different temperatures. Kinetics was estimated by applying the relation between the chemical equilibrium constant and the Arrhenius equation. Where rate constant and activation energy for forward and revers reaction was obtained by varying min and max values for lsqcurvefit in MATLAB and then validate results with published kinetics.  Results from production of propyl acetate with batch, PFR and RED provides an annual profit of approximately 1 M$ at a capacity of 41.65 kton/year. The three different process provides also approximately an equal capital cost, operating cost, equipment cost, and installed cost according to APEA. RED provided the lowest propyl acetate yield at 93%, batch and PFR provided a propyl acetate yield of 94%.  Results from production of trivalerate with batch, PFR, and RD provides an annual profit of 5.4, 5.78, and 9.2 M$ at a capacity of approximately 5 kton/year. Where RD process provides the lowest capital cost, operating cost, equipment cost, and installed cost compared to batch and PFR processes according to APEA. Obtained results from production of trivalerate can be used to evaluate the economic and technical feasibility of a continuous production plant for pentaerythritol tetravalerate (PETV). Where initial simulations show a good economic and technical viability of a continuous ester production plant.

The use of carbon from fossil-based resources result in changes in the earth’s climate due to emissions of greenhouse gases. Biomass is the only renewable source of carbon that may be converted to transportation fuels and chemicals, markets now fully dominated by traditional oil supply. The biorefinery concept for upgrading and refinement of biomass feedstocks to value-added end-products has the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and replace fossil products. Most biorefineries use biochemical conversion processes and may have by-product streams suitable as feedstocks for thermal conversion and production of syngas. Further synthesis to value-added products from the syngas could increase the product output from the biorefinery. The application of thermal conversion processes integrated into an existing biorefinery concept has been evaluated in this licentiate thesis work. Two by-product streams; hydrolysis (lignin) residue from an ethanol plant and biogas from wastewater treatment, have been investigated as gasification/reforming feedstocks. Also, the pre-treatment method torrefaction has been evaluated for improved gasification fuel characteristics and integration aspects. A new process and system concept (Bio2Fuels) with potential carbon negative benefits has been suggested and evaluated as an alternative route for syngas production by separating biomass into a hydrogen rich gas and a carbon rich char product. The evaluation demonstrated that hydrolysis residue proved a suitable feedstock for gasification with respect to syngas composition. Biogas can be further reformed to syngas by combined biomass gasification and methane reforming, with promising results on CH4 conversion rate and increased H2/CO ratio at temperatures ≥1000°C. The pre-treatment method torrefaction was demonstrated to improve fuel qualities and may thus significantly facilitate entrained flow gasification of biomass residue streams. Also, integration of a torrefaction plant at a biorefinery site could make use of excess heat for drying the raw material before torrefaction. The Bio2Fuels concept was evaluated and found feasible for further studies. The application of thermal conversion processes into an existing biorefinery, making use of by-products and biomass residues as feedstocks, has significant potential for energy integration, increased product output as well as for climate change mitigation.

Nationella likväl som internationella studier har visat att redoxkemi är ett utmanande ämne för många gymnasieelever. Syftet med uppsatsen var med bakgrund av detta att identifiera de vanligaste svårigheter och missuppfattningar som gymnasieelever upplever vid studier av redoxkemi, samt presentera modeller och undervisningsmetoder som visat sig öka elevernas förståelse och minska risken för missuppfattningar. Det finns fyra förklaringsmodeller för redoxreaktioner: elektronmodellen, oxidationstalsmodellen, syremodellen och vätemodellen. Vidare kan kemiska fenomen generellt analyseras utifrån den kemiska tripletten där fenomen betraktar från tre representationsnivåer: makroskopisk nivå, submikroskopisk nivå och symbolisk nivå.   Utifrån litteraturen som analyserats dras slutsatsen att de vanligaste problemen elever uppfattar inom redoxkemi berör elektroner, förbränning, språkliga transformationer och svårigheter att identifiera redoxreaktioner. Undervisningsmetoder som visat sig kunna främja elevernas förståelse inom redoxkemi är historiska inslag, representation av kemiska fenomen med hjälp av den kemiska tripletten, laborationer och demonstrationer. Samtliga förklaringsmodeller för redoxkemi anses användbara. Det viktiga är att läraren poängterar att de är modeller och inte statisk sanning, vidare att motivera övergången från en modell till en annan och uppmärksammar missuppfattningar.

The replacement of fossil resources through renewable alternatives is one way to mitigate global climate change. Biomass is the only renewable source of carbon available for replacing oil as a refining feedstock. Therefore, it needs to be utilized not just as a fuel but for both biochemical and thermochemical conversion through biorefining. Optimizing and combining various conversion processes using a system perspective to maximize the valorization, biomass usage, and environmental benefits is of importance. This thesis work has evaluated the integration opportunities for various thermochemical conversion processes within a biorefinery system. The aim for all evaluated concepts were syngas production through gasification or reforming. Two potential residue streams from an existing biorefinery were evaluated as gasification feedstocks, thereby combining biochemical and thermochemical conversion. Torrefaction as a biomass pretreatment for gasification end-use was evaluated based on improved feedstock characteristics, process benefits, and integration aspects. A system concept, “Bio2Fuels”, was suggested and evaluated for low-temperature slow pyrolysis as a way to achieve simultaneous biomass refinement and transport driven CO2 negativity. Syngas was identified as a very suitable intermediate product for residue streams from biochemical conversion. Resulting syngas composition and quality showed hydrolysis residue as suitable gasification feedstock, providing some adjustments in the feedstock preparation. Gasification combined with torrefaction pretreatment demonstrated reduced syngas tar content. The co-gasification of biogas and wood in a FBG was successfully demonstrated with increased syngas H2/CO ratio compared to wood gasification, however high temperatures (≥1000°C) were required for efficient CH4 conversion. The demonstrated improved feedstock characteristics for torrefied biomass may facilitate gasification of biomass residue feedstocks in a biorefinery. Also, integration of a torrefaction unit on-site at the biorefinery or off-site with other industries could make use of excess low-value heat for the drying step with improved overall thermal efficiency. The Bio2Fuels concept provides a new application for slow pyrolysis. The experimental evaluation demonstrated significant hydrogen and carbon separation, and no significant volatilization of ash-forming elements (S and Cl excluded)  in low-temperature (<400°C) pyrolysis. The initial reforming test showed high syngas CH4 content, indicating the need for catalytic reforming. The collective results from the present work indicate that the application of thermochemical conversion processes into a biorefinery system, making use of by-products from biochemical conversion and biomass residues as feedstocks, has significant potential for energy integration, increased product output, and climate change mitigation.