The field study involved obtaining complete soil descriptions and data relating to the vegetation, relief, climate and geology of the area. The tests selected for the laboratory phase of the study were those thought most likely to reveal the degree of development of each profile and included mechanical analysis, apparent specific gravity, fusion analysis, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon, and soil reaction. The results of the study indicate that the soils form a sequence of profiles showing different degrees of development. The first soil examined shows little evidence of profile development since free lime occurs right to the surface and there is no evidence of translocation of any constituents down the profile. It is suggested that this soil be treated as an Alluvial soil in classification. The second profile, termed a Brown Wooded soil, shows slightly greater development than the Alluvial soil, but at the same time it has not reached the Grey Wooded stage of development, as represented by the third profile. Free lime has been leached to a depth of six inches but there is no accumulation of clay or sesquioxides in the B horizon of the Brown Wooded soil. It would appear that this soil should be separated from Alluvial and Grey Wooded soils at the family level of the classification system. The third profile has the characteristics necessary for classification as a Grey Wooded soil. The analyses show that there has been an appreciable translocation of clay and sesquioxides from the A₂ to the B₂ horizon. The apparent specific gravity and percent base saturation are also typical of Grey Wooded soils. The fourth soil studied is a polygenetic profile having a Brown Podzolic soil in the upper part of the solum and a heavy textured clay horizon typical of Grey Wooded soils in the lower part. It would appear that a Brown Podzolic soil has developed in the A₂ horizon of a Grey Wooded due to acid leaching. This soil is considered to be a Grey Wooded-Brown Podzolic intergrade. The fifth soil is the most mature soil in the sequence. This profile is characterized by the development of a Podzol soil in the A₂ horizon of a Grey Wooded. The laboratory analyses have confirmed field observations in this regard. There is an accumulation of sesquioxides and organic matter, typical of Podzol soils in the B_█(p@) horizon,while the lower B_2gw horizon shows the clay accumulation characteristic of Grey Wooded soils. The soil reaction, cation exchange capacities and percent base saturation are also in agreement with the accepted definitions of these soils. The fifth soil, therefore, is considered to be a Grey Wooded-Podzol intergrade. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The soils of the Doukhobor lands of British Columbia were studied as a part of a research project undertaken by faculty members of the University of British Columbia at the request of the Attorney General of the Province. These lands comprise about 18,872 acres that occur in 16 parcels or communities in two general areas, 5327 acres near Grand Forks and 13,545 acres in the West Kootenay area. Soil surveys of these areas were conducted during the summers of 1951 and 1952. They were traversed by automobile and on foot and the soil type boundaries and related information plotted on aerial photographs of the scale of about one mile to 13 inches. From these photographs, soil maps were prepared of the scale of 400 feet to the inch. In the course of the field operations bulk and undisturbed soil profile samples were collected from the more important soil types and test were conducted relative to infiltration rates and field moisture capacities. The soil profile samples were used in the laboratory during the winters for the determination of soil reaction, organic carbon, nitrogen, mechanical composition, apparent specific gravity, pore size distribution, permanent wilting percentage and other properties. The more important soils of the valleys at Grand Forks were found to belong to the Black soil group while those in the West Kootenay were classed as Brown Podzolio. Small areas of Glei soils were also found. The soil parent materials were chiefly alluvium, glacial till and till derivatives and alluvial fan. From this information soil series were tentatively named and described. The Black soils have reactions ranging from about pH 7 in the A₁ horizon to pH 8.5 in the 0 horizon where free lime occurred. In reaction the Brown Podzolio soils were acid in all horizons and free lime was characteristically absent. The organic carbon content of the Black soils was significantly higher and the carbon to nitrogen ratio narrower than that of the Brown Podzolio soils. The mechanical analysis showed the soils to be low in clay and silt and high in sand in both areas, the exceptions being the soils derived from fine textured alluvium such as the Shoreacres, Glaybrlck and Claypit series. High macro-pore space, infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivities also characterize most of the soils. The field moisture storage capacity and permanent wilting percentage values showed that most of the soils have very low available moisture storage capacities which seriously limit their use for crop production without irrigation. When the soils were classified on the basis of their suitability for crop production without irrigation, only 3,037 acres or 17 percent of the area was classed as arable, and of this only 321 acres or 2 percent was Class 1. The land classed as nonarable without irrigation is suitable for forestry, wildlife, water storage, building sites and other uses. When rated on the basis of its suitability for crop production with sprinkler type irrigation 11,053 acres or 58 percent of the total area was classified as suitable for irrigation but of this only 635 acres or 3 percent was rated as Class 1, It is evident that Irrigation will be a very Important consideration in the use of these lands. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Annual and seasonal changes in distribution and abundance of six species of macro-zooplankton (Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi, Diaptomus ashlandi, Daphnia galeata mendotae, Diaph- anosoma leuchtenbergianum, Bosmina coregoni, and Mysxs relicta.) twgre studied in Kootenay Lake, a body of water extending over 105 km in southeastern British Columbia. Differences between two years, 1949 and 1964, were examined as well as changes in midsummer distribution and abundance between three consecutive years (1964 to 1966). Seasonal changes during one year and within a summer were also noted as well as diel changes in distribution and abundance. A large increase in zooplankton abundance occurred during the fifteen year period from 1949 to 1964, and this was attributed to an increased inflow of primary nutrients from a major tributary at the south end of the lake. A change in species composition, formerly dominated by Daphnia but now by Diaphanosoma, was related with eutrophication. Changes in food availability due to eutoophication, competition for food with Mysis relicta, and heavy predation by kokanee (Oncorhynchus nerka), were examined as factors possibly responsible for changes in the spatial distribution of Daphnia since 1949. Differences in the midsummer zooplankton distribution and abundance between three consecutive years (1964 to 1966) were minor, suggesting that the changes noted between 1949 and 1964 were attributable to large changes in limnological conditions and not merely the result of annual fluctuations. Examination of seasonal trends in zooplankton distribution and abundance indicated that zooplankton, with the exception of Mysis relicta, were most abundant during the summer. Mysids were most abundant in May when the young mysids were released from the brood pouch. Spatial differences in summer zooplankton abundance was examined in relation to wind-driven currents, and food availability. Spatial differences during the rest of the year were minor, possibly a result of similar limnological conditions at all stations then. Abundance of Mysis relicta was greatest in the north arm of the lake, whereas all other species were most abundant in the central area of the lake. Changes that occurred within the summer were largely due to high turbidity in the south arm during June and July. Diel changes in the vertical distribution of zooplankton, with the exception of Mysis relicta, were not detected. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this thesis was to study the geomagnetic variation anomaly at Kootenay Lake, B.C., first reported by Hyndman in 1963. The anomaly is characterized by a very high correlation between the vertical and horizontal north-south geomagnetic components; this indicates anomalous currents striking magnetic east-west, to the south of Kootenay Lake. During the summer of 1968, twenty recording stations were set up in the Kootenay Lake area, using four Askania variographs and three fluxgate magnetometers. Spectral analysis shows that the main 'low I - high I' discontinuity was traversed over a relatively short distance on a north-south profile, to the south of Kootenay Lake. Polarization studies indicate anomalous currents striking magnetic east-west in the same general area of the above discontinuity. The model proposed is a localized distortion of the main 'low I - high I’ discontinuity, resulting in a well defined conductivity step, striking magnetic east-west, to the south of Kootenay Lake. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The storm runoff of small springs and seeps in the West Kootenays was subjected to hydrograph separation using oxygen-18 and conductance methodologies. The results showed that the vast majority of storm discharge was groundwater. Under peak flow conditions, the ratio of prestorm water to storm water was 0.93 for Morley Spring, 0.88 for Anderson Creek, 0.87 for Elliott Creek, 0.84 for Chou Creek and 0.85 for Tank Creek. Further comparison between prestorm discharge and storm water indicated that the groundwater probably originated as spring snow melt. These implications are discussed with regard to the various logging development plans currently being proposed for the study sites. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

This study was concerned with the design and evaluation of a land use simulation game for rural residents of the East Kootenay region of British Columbia. The rationale behind the study was that gaming was a technique worthy of investigation for use in the environmental education of adults. Two hypotheses were proposed to guide the research on the land use simulation game designed. The first proposed that the game would produce a significant increase in knowledge and change in attitude, and the second stated that significant relationships would be shown between player characteristics, game play data and test results. A simulation game was designed using a modified version of a procedure set out by Glazier (41) for designing educational games. Two preliminary versions were tested and a final version set up. The game was a board game using an enlarged piece of a land capability map. Players bought and planned pieces of land through the four seasons of the year. The objective of the game was to maximize economic returns without severely damaging the environment. Instruments for evaluating the game were simultaneously designed and tested. The simulation game was played with 40 East Kootenay residents in school district number 2, Cranbrook on properties of 50 acres or more. Family groups played the game and completed both a pre and post-test. The people playing the simulation game came mostly from productive farms (82.5%). Thirty-five percent of the sample were husbands and wives, 45 percent children, and 20 percent were others which included farm hands and neighbours. The mean educational level of the group was 10.7 years. The mean land holding size was 537.1 acres and the mean number of players per each of the nine gaming sessions was 4.7 persons. Years of schooling correlated positively with the total score a person received on the game. Objective 6 on the ability to identify good and poor land uses correlated significantly with a number of other variables. This objective appears to be an important one to consider in future game modification. Knowledge and attitude correlated significantly and positively with years of schooling, money scores, total scores, playing time, number of players, attitude towards the game, and rank within a group; and negative significant correlations were found with property size and environmental unit scores. T-test results showed that there had been a general increase in knowledge and in particular an increase in the knowledge about the competitive relationships that exist between wild and domestic populations. A change in attitude about the effects of land use on neighbouring lands was also found to be significant. It was concluded that the simulation game had been a limited success with some learning statistically demonstrable. Correlation data and subjective data provided sufficient information for the further modification of this learning device to enhance its effectiveness. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

This thesis is an investigation of the economic potential for use of 15,000 acres of land in the Kootenay River floodplain at Creston, British Columbia. The Kootenay River flows north into Canada through this floodplain and enters Kootenay Lake 20 miles north of the International Border. The total area of the floodplain between Kootenay Lake and the Border is approximately 36,000 acres, of which 20,000 acres have been reclaimed for agriculture. This study is concerned with 15,000 acres which remain undeveloped, 10,000 acres being provincial Crown land, and 5,000 being Indian Reserve. At present this land is inundated annually by the freshet of the Kootenay River. It provides an important link in the habitat requirements of migratory waterfowl, is used lightly by hunters and fishermen, and provides limited grazing for beef cattle before and after the freshet. The impending completion of Libby Dam, upstream on the Kootenay River at Libby, Montana, will reduce the extent of annual flooding and the costs associated with more intensive use of the land. Consequently, there is considerable interest in intensive development of this land, either for agriculture as with the rest of the floodplain, or as a wildlife management area for the production of wildlife and use in outdoor recreation. Resource managers face the problem of determining which of these alternatives represents the optimum land use. This is a difficult problem, and its solution requires that the benefits and costs associated with each alternative be reduced to a common basis for comparison. This study attempts to make such comparisons on a rigorous basis through the use of benefit-cost analysis. The feasibility of each land use alternative is assessed, and comparisons made on the basis of the net present worth of benefits minus costs. The principles of benefit-cost analysis are well developed, and its application is not difficult when project costs and benefits are adequately reflected in factor prices. Difficulties are encountered in the present study, however, where the output from development for wildlife and outdoor recreation is not marketed and there are no prices to reflect the values created. In analysing the wildlife-recreation alternative, values are imputed to the recreational opportunities using recently developed concepts in evaluating non-priced resource uses. While values are established for direct recreational use, other important aspects of the output under this development are not valued (the production of wildlife independent of recreational use, the preservation of rare species, the fulfillment of international obligations regarding migratory birds). The analysis of this alternative is thus restricted to a comparison between the full costs and only those benefits which are expressed in monetary terms. A further important issue is that the relevant measure of benefits and costs may differ, depending on the 'referent group' from whose point of view the analysis is conducted. To demonstrate the importance of this matter the analysis in this study is conducted from the point of view of three referent groups, the local Creston economy, the province of British Columbia, and Canada as a whole. The outcome of a benefit-cost analysis may also be sensitive to the discount rate adopted, and the sensitivity is tested in this study using rates of six, eight and 10 per cent. Despite the difficulties of expressing all costs and benefits in monetary terms, a rigorous analysis is undertaken and provides the basis for a clear choice of the optimum form of land use. Analysis of agricultural reclamation reveals it to be feasible, with net present values of primary and secondary benefits ranging from $2.4 million from the local perspective to $2.2 million from the provincial and national points of view. Offset against these tangible net benefits are the intangible costs associated with the destruction of existing wildlife habitat and wildlife species. Analysis of the wildlife-recreation development produces widely varying results, depending on the referent group adopted. The net present value of primary and secondary benefits is estimated at $2.1 million from the local viewpoint, $4.6 million provincially, and $7.3 million from the point of view of Canada as a whole. In addition to these quantified values, this development will produce important unmeasurable benefits. In comparing the two, the net benefits estimated for agricultural development can be interpreted as maximum values, ignoring as they do some of the costs associated with wildlife losses. The net benefits estimated from the wildlife-recreation development are regarded as minimum values, since important additional values associated with wildlife production are not quantified.. Viewed in this light the choice between alternatives favors the wildlife-recreation development from both provincial and national perspectives, but is less clear at the local level. Since a basic premise of the study is that the provincial viewpoint is appropriate for decision making, it is concluded that the wildlife-recreation development represents the optimum land use. / Arts, Faculty of / Vancouver School of Economics / Graduate

This thesis examines the concept of sustainability and the implications of large-scale hydroelectric development for the sustainability of communities in the Canadian portion of the Columbia River Basin. A literature review of sustainability provides a background for discussion and a working definition of sustainability is proposed for consideration throughout the study. An overview of the Canadian experience with hydro development and its ecological, social and economic impacts provides a context within which to consider issues related to sustainability. The Columbia River Basin is the setting of a case study of sustainability and hydro development in British Columbia. The Kootenay region has been affected by extensive hydro projects since the early 1900s on the Kootenay River and most significantly by large dams built on the Columbia system as a result of the Columbia River Treaty. Communities in the Kootenays have borne a large share of the impacts of these dams. The resulting degradation of fisheries, wildlife and forests has jeopardized the integrity of the region’s resource base and its capability to enhance the quality of life of those living within the Columbia River drainage basin. Future hydroelectric planning should address the sustainability of the ecological, social and economic systems affected by this land use change and ensure that local communities are included in project decision-making. Increased awareness of the consequences of large-scale hydro projects during planning stages may enable sustainable development to occur.

This thesis examines the concept of sustainability and the implications of large-scale hydroelectric development for the sustainability of communities in the Canadian portion of the Columbia River Basin. A literature review of sustainability provides a background for discussion and a working definition of sustainability is proposed for consideration throughout the study. An overview of the Canadian experience with hydro development and its ecological, social and economic impacts provides a context within which to consider issues related to sustainability. The Columbia River Basin is the setting of a case study of sustainability and hydro development in British Columbia. The Kootenay region has been affected by extensive hydro projects since the early 1900s on the Kootenay River and most significantly by large dams built on the Columbia system as a result of the Columbia River Treaty. Communities in the Kootenays have borne a large share of the impacts of these dams. The resulting degradation of fisheries, wildlife and forests has jeopardized the integrity of the region’s resource base and its capability to enhance the quality of life of those living within the Columbia River drainage basin. Future hydroelectric planning should address the sustainability of the ecological, social and economic systems affected by this land use change and ensure that local communities are included in project decision-making. Increased awareness of the consequences of large-scale hydro projects during planning stages may enable sustainable development to occur. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

In recent years, the term "Healthy Communities" has become a catch phrase among planners, health promotion workers, social workers and government agencies, and increasing numbers of professionals have taken a role in the development of healthy communities projects. The literature on the healthy communities concept has increased in size and scope. Yet the concept itself is byno means clearly defined. Nor is there a standard method for developing a successful healthy communities project, or a regional collaboration of healthy communities projects. The question remains, when a planner undertakes a role in the development of a healthy communities project, what are the most important factors to consider? This thesis examines the influence of various project inputs on the ability of a regional healthy communities project to achieve its objectives. The thesis uses a case study of the Tri-City Health Promotion Project, a collaborative healthy communities project undertaken in the cities of Castlegar, Trail and Nelson in the West Kootenay region of British Columbia. In this study, documentary analysis and interviews with Tri-City project staff illuminate the importance of several influences on a regional healthy communities project. Some of these are: the approach used by the participants (task- orprocess-orientation), the resources and constraints specific to each community, the context from which the project grew, the personalities of those involved, the ability of the collaborating communities to work together, and the relationship between the community and regional bodies in the project structure. Conclusions: While every healthy communities project will be affected differently by various inputs, in the case of the Tri-City Health Promotion Project, the relationship between the regional and community bodies in the project structure had the greatest influence on the ability of the community Steering Committees to achieve their goals. Planners working on a regional healthy communities project must carefully examine the design of the project, in order to develop a structure which enhances the working relationship between regional and community bodies. This is particularly crucial in the healthy communities context, where decision-making power often resides at the community level, rather than being centralized in the regional body.