The educational achievement and well-being of looked after children are a priority nationally and locally. The majority of looked after children enter the care system due to abuse and neglect and foster care is the most common placement type (DfE, 2012). Early experience of abuse and neglect is associated with changes to development in the frontal brain regions resulting in executive function difficulty. Executive functions are a collection of interrelated but distinct functions with responsibility for purposeful, goal-directed, problem-solving behaviour (Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000). Evidence of neural plasticity in the prefrontal cortex suggests executive function development can be supported. The two main methods of support are computer based training, such as in working memory training which yields immediate gains but may not be sustained or generalised (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013) and ecological executive function interventions, which are promising but are mainly used with pre-school samples (Bryck & Fisher, 2012).Parental involvement in children’s education is promoted nationally (DCSF, 2008) and valued by carers (Cooper & Johnson, 2007). Consultations between carers and professionals can indirectly support fostered children (Osborne & Alfano, 2011) but few studies have evaluated the use of consultation to support executive function development in fostered children (Lansdown, Burnell, & Allen, 2007). A multiple case-study design, with embedded units of analysis, was adopted to qualitatively explore the implementation processes and outcomes of a school-based intervention that adapted conjoint behavioural consultation (CBC) (Sheridan & Kratochwill, 2007) to support executive function development of children in foster care. Both cases consisted of a school-aged fostered child, living in the north west of England, with prior experience of abuse and/or neglect. The participants across cases were two educators and three carers and data gathering consisted of semi-structured interviews and participant-observation. Data analysis utilised thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) and a cross-case analysis (Yin, 2009) identified common themes alongside themes pertinent to each case. The findings indicate that an adapted CBC retains the relational objectives which are received positively by participants but outcome objectives are more variable. The limitations of the study and the implications for educational psychologists, stakeholders, and future research are highlighted.

Background: According to the existing evidence base, the experience of ending therapy, from the perspectives of adolescents who are looked after, is substantially under researched. Moreover, the ending of therapy is highlighted as an important phase of the therapy process and previous research into ending therapy indicates this as a valuable area of research. The available literature indicates that those with a history of loss may find the ending phase particularly challenging. It was hoped that the research findings may assist Clinical Psychologists and other therapists to make sense of how young people experience ending therapy, and may also highlight ways in which therapists can support looked after young people through this transition. Aims: The study aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the way in which young people who are looked after make sense of ending psychological therapy. Methodology: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six looked after adolescents who had recently ended psychological therapy. The transcripts of the interviews were then analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Results: Four master themes emerged from analysis: inextricable link between therapy and therapy relationship, ambivalence, means of coping and moving on from therapy. Implications and Conclusion: This study highlights the need for careful and on going consideration of the ending phase of therapy with this population. It also gives further support to the significance of the therapeutic relationship and consideration of this at the end of therapy. Areas for future research are highlighted, notably the value of conducting further research with looked after young people, to explore factors such as culture and gender on the experience of ending therapy.

This thesis examines the perspectives and experiences of primary Initial Teacher Education (ITE) trainee teachers, of working with Looked After Children (LAC), and the implications for training and Continuing Professional Development (CPD). The thesis is within the interpretivist paradigm, using a Grounded Theory Methodological approach. The research was carried out in one post-1992 English university, with trainee teachers on a three year undergraduate BA (Honours) Education teacher training route, and a one-year Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) route. Feedback was sought from wider organisations and professionals working directly with LAC. LAC continue to underperform academically in comparison to their peers, and for decades have been let down by systems and support, with many entering the criminal justice system at an early age. This study examines trainee teachers’ perspectives to conclude how specific training can support teachers and in turn impact on LAC. The thesis draws out four main themes from the trainees: the negative impact of previous experience on trainee values and beliefs towards LAC as they enter ITE; the positive and negative perceptions and experiences of trainees in relation to collaborative working; the negative perceptions and experiences of trainees in relation to the behaviour and learning needs of LAC; and trainees’ and mentors’ lack of knowledge in relation to LAC. The study concludes that trainees and mentors have a lack of knowledge and skills on how to support LAC in five key areas; policy and legislation, challenging negative perceptions, emotional well-being and supportive strategies, administrative knowledge, and collaborative working. A training model to support ITE and CPD is developed, gaining feedback from key organisations and professionals working with LAC.

Background/Aims: Children and young people in residential care often exhibit complex emotional and behavioural needs. Attachment theory is frequently used to explain these difficulties, whereby a young person's early experience can influence their internal representations of relationships and their subsequent interactions within the residential milieu. Thus, residential childcare staff have a fundamental role supporting young people, to facilitate therapeutic change and mitigate poor long-term outcomes. Policy and research often recommend staff training and attachment-informed care, yet there is very limited understanding of how this translates into practice or influences outcomes. Therefore, this thesis aimed to systematically review literature on the types, measurement and effectiveness of residential staff training, focussed upon psychosocial outcomes. It also aimed to construct an explanatory theory of how residential staff make sense of, and use, attachment theory in practice. Methods: Research aims are addressed in two studies. Literature on residential staff training was systematically reviewed in Journal Article 1. This was conducted through a search of electronic databases, quality assessment of included studies, and subsequent narrative synthesis. Journal Article 2 used qualitative methodology in the form of constructivist grounded theory. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty residential staff members through an iterative process of data collection and analysis, and theoretical sampling, until theoretical saturation was achieved. Results: Eighteen studies were included in the systematic review. Results highlight heterogeneous staff training, often evaluated through measurement of staff knowledge, skills and/or attitudes, and/or child behaviour frequency. Findings offer tentative support for the positive impact of training upon staff skills but other outcomes remain unclear. Results from Journal Article 2 indicate that staff had difficulty articulating attachment theory and often did not have a coherent narrative to describe attachment theory to practice links. Instead, they focussed upon a natural process of building relationships within a challenging context, with attachment theory only coming to the forefront when deemed relevant. Conclusions: The effectiveness of residential staff training remains unclear due to the methodological limitations of included studies. Significant improvements are identified for future evaluations of training to address this issue. Future staff training may benefit from limiting jargon, developing theory to practice links, and facilitating staff reflective function. Recommendations of attachment-informed care must also recognise the complexity of the residential system; and the current disparity between attachment theory narrative within policy and research, and practice.

Background: Maltreated children, including those who are looked after away from home, are amongst the most vulnerable members of society. Due to the relational trauma that most looked after children have experienced they are at increased risk of attachment and mental health difficulties, which can impede their ability to form close relationships with new carers. Indeed, many such children behave in ways that fail to elicit caregiving or even as if they do not need caregivers, and providing sensitive, therapeutic care to these vulnerable children can be a considerable challenge. Aims: The aims of this thesis were threefold: to review the impact of maltreatment experiences on children’s executive functioning, to investigate the prevalence of attachment and trauma-related difficulties in children in foster care, and their impact on the parenting task of foster carers. Methods: Aims are addressed in two journal articles. To address the first aim, a systematic review of research regarding the association between maltreatment and executive function in children and adolescents is presented in journal article one. Subsequent aims are addressed in journal article two, a cross-sectional study with foster carers of children in care aged 3-12 years who completed self-report measures investigating the emotional, behavioural, attachment and trauma related difficulties of their foster child, the perceived quality of the relationship, and levels of parenting stress and sense of competence. Results: The systematic review revealed that the majority of studies demonstrated a significant impairment in one or more areas of executive ability in maltreated children, with particular support for impairments in inhibitory control, executive working memory and decision making. However, there was only limited support for impairments in cognitive flexibility, planning/problem solving, and fluency. Furthermore, there was considerable variability between studies in the specific deficits reported. Results from the empirical study highlight the prevalence of attachment and trauma-related difficulties in children in foster care. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that levels of foster carer-rated inhibited attachment behaviour was a significant predictor of quality of the foster carer-child relationship and parenting stress. The level of emotional and behavioural difficulties also emerged as a significant predictor of quality of the foster carer-child relationship, and parenting sense of competence. Conclusions: This thesis highlights the pervasive impact of relational trauma on children. Results of the systematic review indicate its impact on children’s executive ability. The empirical study reveals the high prevalence of attachment and trauma-related difficulties in children in foster care, and provides insight into factors related to quality of the foster carer-child relationship, and the stress and sense of competence of foster carers. Implications for interventions and service provision regarding maltreated children who become looked after away from home, and their carers, are discussed.

This overarching chapter for a PhD by publication brings together a programme of research that commenced in 2000 and includes a series of eight publications (from 2006-2014) that have been selected to demonstrate the development of a theoretical framework and research methods to explore the relationship between the needs, costs and outcomes of child welfare services provided to vulnerable children and their families. The findings provide an insight into how children s social care services can be provided as effectively and efficiently as possible. Along with an understanding of how and when support and services are, or can be, provided to vulnerable children and their families, in response to their specific needs and circumstances and consequently transform children s lives by improving outcomes.

Looked after children (LAC) have been identified as one of the most vulnerable and disadvantaged members of our education system (Sempik, Ward, & Darker, 2008); they are at risk of failing to achieve the Every Child Matters outcomes (DFES, 2004), and, there are particular concerns regarding low levels of academic achievement (DCSF, 2009). Much of the research regarding LAC is from a deficit perspective and attempts to justify the poor outcomes reported; only recently has attention been paid to identifying what works well in schools to promote achievement. Appreciative Inquiry (AI) proposed by Cooperrider & Srivastva (1987) is an affirmatively focused method of research and development which challenges traditional problem-solving approaches (Grant & Humphries, 2006); it seeks to discover the existing strengths and successes within an organisation to inspire change (Espinosa, Roebuck, & Rohe, 2002). Whilst the efficacy of AI has been demonstrated within organisational and healthcare settings there is a dearth of literature evidencing the efficacy of AI in educational settings. AI has not been used with LAC, or the professionals who work with them, and this approach has the potential to provide a new lens on this historically problematic area. This thesis proposed to identify key factors which have the greatest positive impact on the school experience of LAC, in secondary schools, through the use of AI. In doing so, this thesis also sought to explore the efficacy of AI as a research tool for working with LAC and school staff, and, to explore its potential for creating change. A single case study design was used involving one local authority secondary school. Participants attended semi-structured interviews aligned with the AI 4-D cycle; this was followed by a workshop session to explore findings and agree future actions. Further data was also collated through content analysis of the research interviews, participant evaluations and a research diary. Key themes were identified including: effective adult support, engaging learning opportunities, rewarding school systems, a safe and secure environment, good quality relationships, and the importance of normalising the school experience. A number of supplementary themes were also identified. AI was found to be an effective method of research; it appears to be an interactive and enabling approach, which considers both organisational successes and concerns. During the workshop a number of actions were identified to further improve the school experience and there is a high likelihood that change will occur. Implications for EP practice and areas for future research are also considered.

The research has set out to examine the motives that contribute towards the decision to adopt a disabled child. Increased knowledge about placing disabled children for adoption is particularly important as they are regarded as the category hardest to place (Adoption Register 2009). Despite the wide gaps in knowledge, the negativity associated with the social construction of disability has been seen as a cause of disabled children’s disadvantage (Cousins 2009). Synthesising a Critical Realist framework with Grounded Theory methods; to examine both the efforts of local authorities to place a disabled child for adoption, as well as the narratives of those adopters who take on disabled child. The findings reveal that social workers often take a tentative approach to placing a disabled child, which impacts upon adoption outcomes, both in the way they represent disabled children and in the way they recruit and assess adopters. The Rationalistic Habitus is a concept used to reflect the way social workers reason their way through particular issues before arriving at a practice judgement. The study, also examines the narratives of adopters and their journey through the process of adopting a child with a significant impairment. Instances where adopters embark on adopting a disabled child are significant because they are making a decision in opposition to a prevailing discourse where disabled children are conceptualised as a burden to their families (Jordan and Sales 2007). An examination of these adopter’s motives requires one to think more deeply about how motives are processed. By focusing on the Habitus and reflexivity this research has attempted to bring new insights into how people process the prospect of becoming a parent to a disabled child. However, while the decision to adopt a disabled child might appear unconventional it is not so abnormal that we cannot make sense of their motives. The lifelong nature of the adoption role demonstrates that commitment is at the heart of these adoptions. The notion of a Commitment Habitus is reflected when adopters express an innate drive to nurture. In effect, this research contends that the motive to adopt a disabled child is wrapped in an orientation to invest in social relationships.

Previous research has indicated the unique contribution that the interaction between looked after children and their foster carers might have on young people’s behaviour, emotional well-being and subsequent placement stability. Furthermore, there may be differences in the way in which young people and their foster carers view a typical family. Despite this, there is a noticeable absence of studies which have specifically explored the foster carer-child relationship, particularly in terms of how their individual perspectives might be negotiated within their interpersonal relationship. The current study therefore aimed to address this gap. Three foster carer-child dyads were recruited from a local Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service, with young people aged between 8 and 16 years. A Personal Construct Psychology (PCP) approach was adopted. Participants each completed an individual interview, facilitated by Perceiver Element Grids (PEGs; Procter, 2002) in which interpersonal construing was explored. Looked after children and their foster carers were then interviewed together to share and discuss their completed PEGs. Interview transcripts were analysed using Thematic Analysis and PCP concepts were used to analyse the interactional processes between young people and their carers. The study highlighted a shared sense of fragmentation across participants’ accounts, with both looked after children and their carers reporting a sense of inauthenticity in the way they negotiated their interpersonal relationships. Differences in the way in which ‘family’ was perceived was also highlighted, with young people expressing a sense of ambivalence regarding their desire to be integrated into their foster family, whilst also retaining a connection to their birth family. These themes were supported in their interactions and co-constructional processes. The findings are discussed in relation to the relevant literature and clinical implications. Methodological limitations and directions for future research are also presented.

Study One: Study one aimed to understand the perceptions and attributions of LAC fixed term excluded (FTE) from school on multiple occasions. This was carried out with reference to resilience, and an understanding of the possible protective and risk factors were also sought. Concepts of resilience (Prince-Embury, 2008; Gilligan, 2009) and attribution theory (Heider, 1958) provided a broad theoretical framework for the research. Methods: The study followed a mixed method design (carried out simultaneously). One aspect involved semi-structured interviews being undertaken using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) (Smith & Osborn, 2007; 2008) in attempting to generate understanding of the thoughts and feelings of LAC going through the process of being FTE. The second aspect involved the resilience of the LAC being psychometrically measured using the Resilience Scales for Children and Adolescents (RSCA) as a way of validating and contextualising data deriving from the interviews. Results: Teachers acting as confidants and providing emotional containment appeared to significantly enhance resilience. Opportunities for dialogue and a focus on aspects to be developed in a supportive and positive manner was also important. The majority of the LAC had an external locus of control, appearing to serve them adaptively, allowing them to alleviate negative emotions relating to their behaviour. FTEs generally were causally attributed as stable and global, appearing to derive from entrenched thoughts, feelings and behaviours. The process of FTE appeared to compromise aspects of resilience as well as little positive effect being found in terms of learning and development. Study Two: Study two aimed to understand how teachers perceived the LAC participating in study one, and providing comparison with perceptions of the LAC of aspects such as FTEs. The study also sought to provide an understanding as to the causal attributions made by teachers related to LAC. Specifically, how these attributions affected their thoughts, feelings (Weiner, 1985) and practice relating to LAC. Methods: The study followed a mixed method design (carried out sequentially). A survey (SDQ) was used to provide the sample of teachers. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with eight teachers, using IPA as the method of analysis. The Modified Attribution Questionnaire with integrated vignettes was also undertaken by teachers to elicit more stable attributions relating to LAC. Results: Data deriving from interviews found support for Weiner’s (1985) cognitive-emotional-action model. Attributions of high controllability and locus increased teachers’ feelings of anger and frustration relating to the causes of the LAC’s behaviour. Empathy towards the LAC was affected by; collaboration with colleagues and professionals, understanding the needs of the child, ethos of the school, a child centred approach and the LAC’s behaviour deriving from their care background. Further key findings are discussed from a theoretical perspective with implications for practice proposed.