Introdução: O risco à saúde humana ocasionado pela contaminação biológica de águas captadas para abastecimento público é realçado pela ocorrência de surtos de doenças associadas aos protozoários Giardia e Cryptosporidium, que possuem baixas doses infecciosas e alta capacidade de sobrevivência no ambiente, além de serem capazes de resistir ao processo tradicional de desinfecção da água (cloração). Partindo-se da hipótese de que há um risco elevado de infecção por estes protozoários pela ingestão de água tratada por métodos convencionais e que fazem uso de mananciais superficiais impactados por contaminação biológica, resultando num possível incremento da incidência de diarréias, este estudo se propôs a verificar a ocorrência destes protozoários em águas captadas para abastecimento público no município de Cajamar-SP, caracterizar sua patogenicidade e avaliar o risco associado ao seu consumo através da água tratada. Métodos: Foram coletadas 48 amostras do ribeirão dos Cristais no ponto de captação da estação de tratamento de água, semanalmente, durante 12 meses (de 16/05/2013 a 21/05/2014). A detecção e a análise da concentração dos protozoários foram realizadas de acordo com Método 1623.1 da United States Environmental Protection Agency e a extração e caracterização dos espécies/genótipos de Giardia e Cryptosporidium foi realizada através metodologias moleculares e seqüenciamento. O risco de infecção pela ingestão de cistos de Giardia e oocistos de Cryptosporidium presentes na água tratada foi calculado usando a ferramenta da Avaliação Quantitativa do Risco Microbiológico, a partir dos dados de concentração dos patógenos obtidos pelo Método 1623.1, eficiência de remoção dos (oo)cistos durante o processo convencional de tratamento da água, modelo dose-resposta e taxa de ingestão diária de água para indivíduos menores de 5 anos e maiores de 21 anos. Resultados: Cistos de Giardia foram detectados em 83,3% das amostras (40/48), com concentrações variando desde o limite de detecção (<0,1) até 8,6 cistos/L. Oocistos de Cryptosporidium foram etectados em 37,5% das amostras (18/48), com concentrações variando desde o limite de detecção (<0,1) até 2 oocistos/L. As espécies/genótipos encontrados (Giardia intestinalis A e B e Cryptosporidium parvum e hominis) são característicos de contaminação antrópica e são frequentemente identificados em estudos epidemiológicos como responsáveis por surtos. A estimativa do risco anual de infecção por Giardia foi de 3,3x10-3 (IC95% 4,6x10-3) para crianças e de 11,5x10-3 (IC95% 13,3x10-3) para adultos, enquanto o risco por Cryptosporidium foi de 1,1x10-3 (IC95% 1,7x10-3) para crianças e de 3,9x10-3 (IC95% 5,0x10-3) para adultos. O incremento da incidência de diarréias foi observado no cenário de estudo após um acidente que resultou em transbordamento de esgotos não tratados no manancial, coincidindo com o aumento na detecção de (oo)cistos. Conclusão: Os resultados evidenciaram que a vulnerabilidade do ribeirão dos Cristais a contaminações biológicas pode culminar em um risco elevado de infecção e adoecimento por Giardia e Cryptosporidium através da ingestão de água tratada. Portanto, o caso é preocupante, tanto do ponto de vista do tratamento e abastecimento de água potável, quanto da degradação e contaminação do manancial, evidenciando a necessidade de se estabelecer medidas de intervenção direcionadas a promover a qualidade da água e garantir sua segurança / Introduction: The risk to human health caused by biological contamination of source water from public water supply is highlighted by the occurrence of outbreaks associated with the protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium, which have low infectious doses and high capacity of survival in the environment, besides being capable of withstanding traditional process for water disinfection (chlorination). Considering that there is a high risk of infection by these protozoa through drinking water treated with conventional methods uptaked from surface waters impacted by biological contamination, resulting in a possible increase in the incidence of diarrhea, this study aimed to verify the occurrence of these protozoa in waters collected for public supply in Cajamar-SP, characterize their pathogenicity and evaluate the risk associated with its consumption. Methods: Forty eight samples were collected in ribeirão dos Cristais, at uptake point of the water treatment plant, weekly, for 12 months (from 05/16/2013 to 05/21/2014). The detection and quantification of protozoa were carried out according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency Method 1623.1, and the extraction and characterization of species/genotypes of iardia and Cryptosporidium were performed through molecular methods and sequencing. The risk of infection by ingestion of Giardia and Cryptosporidium (oo)cysts present in the treated water were calculated using the Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment tool, based on the concentration data of pathogens obtained by the Method 1623.1, removal efficiency of (oo) cysts in the conventional process of water treatment, dose-response model and rate of daily water intake for individuals under the age of 5 years and over 21 years. Results: Giardia cysts were detected in 83.3% of the samples (40/48), with concentrations ranging rom the detection limit (<0.1) to 8.6 cysts/L. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in 7.5% of the samples (18/48), with concentrations ranging from the detection limit (<0.1) to 2 oocysts/L. The species/genotypes found (Giardia intestinalis A and B and Cryptosporidium parvum and hominis) are characteristic of anthropogenic contamination and are often identified in epidemiological studies as being responsible for outbreaks. The estimated annual risk of infection by Giardia was 3,3x10-3 (95% CI 4,6x10-3) for children and 11,5x10-3 (95% CI 13,3x10-3) for adults, while the risk for Cryptosporidium was 1,1x10-3 (95% CI 1,7x10-3) for children and 3,9x10-3 (95% CI 5,0x10-3) for adults. The increase in the incidence of diarrhea was observed in the study scenario after an accident that resulted in an overflow of untreated sewage that reached the reservoir, coinciding with an increase in the detection of the (oo)cysts. Conclusion: The results showed that the vulnerability of the ribeirão dos Cristais to biological contamination may result in a high risk of infection and illness by Giardia and Cryptosporidium through the drinking water consumption. Therefore, the case is of concern, both from the point of view of the treatment and supply of drinking water, as well as to the degradation and contamination of the water source, highlighting the need to establish intervention measures aimed at promoting water quality and ensure its safety

As tetraciclinas são encontradas no mercado sob várias formas farmacêuticas, sendo provenientes de diversos laboratórios farmacêuticos. Com o objetivo de avaliar a qualidade destes medicamentos, foram realizados os ensaios de dissolução in vitro e determinação quantitativa. Um total de 38 amostras de cápsulas de cloridrato de tetraciclina, fosfato de tetraciclina e cloridrato de oxitetraciclina e drágea de cloridrato de doxiciclina, englobando 12 fabricantes, foram analisadas. A dissolução do princípio ativo foi determinada para todas as amostras, conforme o método recomendado pela USP XXIII. Das amostras, duas foram reprovadas e outras quatro foram aprovadas após o reteste. A variação dos valores individuais obtidos no ensaio de dissolução para cada amostra, foi significativa, apresentando coeficiente de variação de até 14,2 %. A determinação quantitativa através do método microbiológico turbidimétrico empregando Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29737, resultou em duas amostras de um mesmo fabricante com potência muito abaixo do limite especificado de 90 a 125 % do valor rotulado, com 55.5 e 68,7 %. Estudo comparativo desta metodologia com o método de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) foi realizado. Para isto, o método da USP XXIII foi escolhida após o ensaio preliminar, seguido de determinação dos parâmetros de validação e adequação do método. O sistema cromatográfico estabelecido consistiu de coluna de fase reversa SYMMETRYTM C8 e fase móvel composta de oxalato de amônio 0,09 M, dimetilformamida e fosfato dibásico de amônio 0.18 M (64:32:4.7) com pH entre 7,6 e 7.7. Os resultados para determinação de cloridrato de tetraciclina confirmaram os valores obtidos no ensaio microbiológico, sendo reprovadas duas amostras. O teor máximo encontrado de 4-epianidrotetraciclina foi de 0,5 %, abaixo do limite de 3 % especificado na USP XXIII. Na comparação entre os dois métodos, foram observados resultados sempre superiores para o método microbiológico. A análise estatística destes resultados mostrou diferença significativa entre as médias das determinações obtidas a partir de cada método. / Tetracyclines are avaiable under several pharmaceutical forms and manufactured by different laboratories. Aiming at the evalution of the quality of these medicines, assays of in vitro dissolution and quantitative determination have been performed in 38 samples of tetracycline hydrochloride and phosphate and oxytetracycline hydrochloride capsules and docycycline hydrochloride coated tablet taken from 12 manufactures. The range of dissolution of the substance was determined in all the samples, according to the method recommended by USP XXIII. On the whole, only two of samples were rejected and all the others approved without restrictions, except four of them, wich required a retest. The evaluation of the individual values obtained in the assay of dissolution in each sample was significant, with a variation coefficient of up to 14.2%. The quantitative determination through the turbidimetric microbiological method employing Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29737, resulted in two samples of tetracycline hydrochloride from the same manufatures with potency of 55.5 % and 68.7 % below the specified limit from 90 % to 125 % the labeled value. A comparative study of this method and the HPLC one was then performed. The USP XXIII method was chosen after a preliminary assay, followed by the determination of its validation parameters and system suitability. The established chromatographic method employed reversed phase column SYMMETRYTM C8 (octylsilane chemically bounded to totally porous sílica particles) and mobile phase consisting of ammonium oxalate 0.09 M, dimethyformamide and dibasic ammonium phosphate 0.18 M (63.9:32:4.7) adjusted to pH 7.6-7.7. The results confirmed the values obtained in the microbiological assay. When this method (HPLC) was used for the determination of 4-epianidrotetracycline, a maximum of 0.5 % was found, below the limit of 3% specified in the USP XXIII. The comparison between both methods reavealed constant superior results in the microbiological one, and the difference between the averages of the determinations from the methods was meaningful.

O cloridrato de tizanidina é um relaxante muscular esquelético de ação central, utilizado no tratamento de espasticidade. Esse fármaco é comercializado apenas sob a forma de comprimidos, o que evidencia a necessidade do desenvolvimento de formulações líquidas orais. No ambiente hospitalar, este aspecto é contornado com a preparação de suspensões derivadas, de modo a permitir a administração em crianças e em adultos com deglutição prejudicada, mas não há dados sobre sua estabilidade. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a estabilidade físico-química e microbiológica de formas farmacêuticas líquidas preparadas em ambiente hospitalar a partir da derivação de comprimidos de cloridrato de tizanidina, empregando como metodologia a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) e análise microbiológica. Um método simples e indicativo de estabilidade foi desenvolvido e validado por CLAE quanto a especificidade, linearidade, limite de detecção e quantificação, precisão, exatidão e robustez. As formulações líquidas foram preparadas em triplicata e acondicionadas em frasco de polietileno tereftalato (PET) âmbar e de vidro âmbar, que foram armazenados sob três diferentes condições: em temperatura ambiente, sob refrigeração e à 40 °C. Foram coletadas amostras a cada 7 dias por um período de 56 dias para a estabilidade físico-química. As formulações líquidas foram analisadas e demonstraram ser quimicamente estáveis durante 56 dias, permitindo um período de utilização prolongado. Entretanto, a determinação da estabilidade microbiológica mostrou que estas formulações estão propensas à contaminação microbiana, o que reduziu drasticamente a sua estabilidade para 7 dias, em ambos os frascos e em todas as temperaturas avaliadas. A qualidade microbiológica foi uma questão crítica, uma vez que as formulações foram produzidas apenas em água para injetáveis e não havia conservantes presentes na formulação. Os resultados deste estudo podem servir de referência para preparar derivações de cloridrato de tizanidina em uso hospitalar, uma vez que se demonstrou a confiabilidade do intervalo de tempo de armazenamento e as condições adequadas para o uso. De acordo com os resultados deste estudo de estabilidade, este fármaco pode ser incorporado na rotina de preparo das derivações dos hospitais, atendendo a uma demanda já há tempos sinalizada. / Tizanidine hydrochloride is a centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant, used in the manegement of spasticity. This drug is sold only as tablets, which highlights the need to develop oral liquid formulations. In the hospital environment, this aspect is circumvented by the preparation of derived suspensions, to allow administration to children and adults with impaired swallowing, but there is no data regarding their stability. The objective of this work was to evaluate the physicochemical and microbiological stability of liquid dosage forms prepared in hospital environment from tizanidine hydrochloride tablets, applying high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and microbiological analysis. A simple and stability-indicating HPLC method was developed and validated for specificity, linearity, limits of detection and quantification, precision, accuracy and robustness. The liquid formulations were prepared in triplicate and placed in amber PET and glass bottles, which were stored under three different conditions: at room temperature, under refrigeration and at 40 °C. Samples were collected every 7 days along 56 days for physicochemical stability. The liquid formulations were analyzed and demonstrated chemical stability for 56 days, allowing the use for long period. However, the determination of microbiological stability showed that these formulations are prone to microbial contamination, which has dramatically reduced its stability to 7 days, in both bottles and all evaluated temperatures. Microbiological quality was a critical issue, since formulations were produced only in water for injectables and there was no preservatives present in the formulation. Results of this study could be applied as a reference for tizanidine hydrochloride derived preparation in hospital, once it was demonstrated the reliability of storage time interval and proper conditions for use. According to the results of this stability study, this drug could be incorporated into the routine of hospital derivations preparation, meeting a demand already indicated.

O doripenem é um antibiótico carbapenêmico de amplo espectro e aprovado pelo Food and Drug administration (FDA) em 2007. Devido a sua recente comercialização, não está presente em códigos oficiais. Desta forma, esta dissertação teve como objetivo validar um método analítico para quantificação do Doripenem utilizando a eletroforese capilar (EC) como ferramenta analítica alternativa à Cromatografia Liquida de Alta Eficiência (CLAE), além de desenvolver métodos físico-químicos para caracterizar a matéria prima e estudar a cinética de degradação do fármaco frente à temperatura e radiação por luz UVC. Diante dos resultados obtidos, verificou-se que métodos de caracterização como a cromatografia em camada delgada, espectrofotometria de infravermelho e ultravioleta e espectroscopia de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear demonstraram ser satisfatórios para caracterização do fármaco, já os métodos como DSC e faixa de fusão não foram adequados. Para fins de comparação com a EC, realizou -se a covalidação do método de CLAE reportado na literatura, tendo sido obtido um fator de correlação de 0,9950, teor médio de I 00,09 % e recuperação de I OI , 19 %. Para o desenvolvimento do método por EC foi utilizado capilar de sílica fundida de 40 em efetivo com 50 11m de diâmetro interno, eletrólito tampão barato de sódio I 00 mM em pH 8,0, tensão aplicada de 15 kV a 25 ºC, comprimento de onda de 298 nm e, procainamida como padrão interno. O comprimento de onda 214 nm foi monitorado a presença de produtos de degradação. O método demonstrou ser específico, linear entre 25-250 11g/ml (r=0,9995) , preciso (I OI ,33 %), exato (I OI ,86 %) e robusto. Conforme os resultados obtidos, os métodos por CLAE e EC demonstraram ser intercambiáveis, contudo, a EC apresenta vantagens como menor tempo de análise e pequena quantidade de resíduo gerado. Para o estudo da cinética de degradação por EC e ensaio microbiológico (EM) , as condições verificadas foram temperatura (45 ºC, por 24 horas) e luz UVC (por 12 horas). O teor final de doripenem obtido pela EC foi de 70,74 e 64,18 % para temperatura e UVC, respectivamente. Já a potência verificada pelo ensaio microbiológico foi de 42,77 e 21 ,95 % para temperatura e UVC, respectivamente. / Doripenem is a carbapenemic antibiotic with a broad spectrum of action launched in 2005. Due to its recent commercialization, doripenem is not in official codes. So this dissertation aims to validate an analytical method to doripenem quantification using capillary electrophoresis (CE) as an alternative method to High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), besides to develop physic-chemical methods to characterize the material and to study the degradation kinetics of doripenem in UVC light and temperature (45 ºC). The characterization methods as thin layer chromatography, infrared and ultraviolet spectroscopy and spectroscopy Nuclear Magnetic Resonance proved to be satisfactory. Melting point range and DSC were not adequate to identify doripenem. To compare HPLC and EC, HPLC method was covalidate according literature. The method demonstrated a correlation factor 0.9950, average content 100.09 % and recovery 101.19 %. For the development of CE method was employed 40 em fused silica capillary in 50 11m inner, electrolyte 100 mM buffer sodium borate at pH 8.0, applied voltage 15 kV at 25 ºC, wavelength 298 nm, and procainamide as internai standard. The method demonstrated to be linear between 25-250 IJQ/ml (r=0.9995), precise (1 01.33 %), accurate (1 01.86 %) and robust. Based on these results, the HPLC and CE methods are interchangeable. However, EC presents advantages such as reduced analysis time and small residue generated. To kinetic degradation study by CE and microbiological assay (MS) conditions as temperature (45 ºC for 24 hours) and UVC light (12 hours) were tested. The final residual content for doripenem by EC was 70.74 % and 64.18 to UVC and temperature, respectively. The antimicrobial power checked by MS was 42.77 and 21 .95% for temperature and UVC, respectively.

Staphylococcus coagulase negativa formam o grupo de agentes mais isolados de vacas com mastite em diversos países. No entanto, a grande variedade de espécies e a ausência de métodos de identificação simples e rápidos são fatores que limitam a avaliação do efeito da mastite causada por SCN sobre a produção e composição do leite. Portanto, os objetivos gerais deste estudo foram: 1) avaliar o efeito da infecção intramamária (IIM) subclínica causada por SCN sobre a composição e a produção de leite de quartos mamários; 2) determinar o efeito da IIM causada por SCN sobre a composição do leite e contagem de células somáticas (CCS); 3) avaliar a técnica de espectrometria de massas por ionização e dessorção a laser assistida por matriz tempo de voo (MALDI-TOF MS) para a identificação das espécies de SCN isoladas de vacas com mastite; 4) avaliar a frequência de espécies de SCN isoladas de vacas com mastite subclínica. Amostras compostas de leite foram coletadas de 1.242 vacas pertencentes a 21 rebanhos leiteiros. As coletas foram realizadas em duas etapas: na primeira, realizou-se coleta asséptica de amostras compostas para identificação dos agentes causadores de mastite; e na segunda, para as vacas com isolamento de SCN, a produção de leite foi mensurada e amostras de leite foram coletadas por quarto mamário para confirmação do diagnóstico microbiológico (SCN) e avaliação da composição e CCS. Os isolados de SCN foram diferenciados genotipicamente pela técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR), associado com o polimorfismo de fragmentos de DNA obtidos por enzimas de restrição (RFLP) e por MALDI-TOF MS. Treze cepas de referência de espécies de SCN normalmente isoladas da mastite foram utilizadas como controle positivo para as duas metodologias de identificação. Um total de 108 quartos mamários foram identificados em nível de espécie pela técnica de PCR-RFLP. Destes, foram selecionados 41 pares de quartos mamários contralaterais com e sem IIM causada por SCN para avaliação do efeito de SCN sobre a produção e composição do leite. Quartos mamários com IIM causada por SCN apresentaram maior CCS (496,99 x 103 células/mL) que os quartos mamários contralaterais sadios (160,79 x 103 células/mL). A IIM causada por SCN não afetou a produção de leite e as concentrações de gordura, proteína, caseína, lactose, sólidos totais e extrato seco desengordurado. Do total de amostras identificadas em nível de espécie pela técnica de PCRRFLP (n=108), 103 (95,37%) foram identificadas pela MALDI-TOF MS em nível de espécie. Cinco isolados de SCN apresentaram identificação em nível de gênero (Staphylococcus spp.) pela MALDI-TOF MS. Todas as cepas de referência foram corretamente identificadas por ambas as metodologias de identificação. Staphylococcus chromogenes foi a espécie mais prevalente (n=80; 74,07%) em vacas com mastite, seguida de S. saprophyticus (n=6; 5,55%) e S. haemolyticus (n=5; 4,63%). Em conclusão, a IIM subclínica causada por SCN aumenta a CCS, porém não altera a produção e composição do leite. A técnica de MALDI-TOF MS é um método sensível (95,37%) e que pode ser utilizado na identificação de espécies de SCN causadoras de mastite. Staphylococcus chromogenes é a espécie mais prevalente em vacas com mastite subclínica causada por SCN. / Coagulase negative staphylococci (CNS) are the most isolated group of mastitis pathogens in many countries. However, the diversity of species and the absence of a simple and fast identification method are limiting factors for the evaluation of the effect of CNS mastitis effect on milk yield and composition of dairy cows. Therefore, the main objectives of this study were: 1) to evaluate the effect of subclinical intramammary infection (IMI) caused by CNS on milk yield and composition at mammary quarter level; 2) to determine the effect of IMI caused by CNS on the milk composition and somatic cell count (SCC); 3) to evaluate the technique of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization - time-of-flight - mass spectrometry (MALDI/TOF-MS) for species identification of CNS isolated from mammary glands; 4) to evaluate the frequency of CNS species isolated from cows with subclinical mastitis. Milk samples were collected from 1,242 cows distributed in 21 dairy herds. Milk samples were collected in two visits to the farm: first, composite milk samples were aseptically collected for identification of mastitis causative pathogens; and the second, the milk yield was measured and milk samples were collected at mammary quarter level for cows with isolation of CNS to confirm the diagnosis and for analysis of milk composition and SCC. Isolates of CNS were genotypically differentiated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) associated with restriction fragment length polymorphism assays and by MALDI-TOF MS. Thirteen CNS reference strains commonly isolated from mastitis were used as positive controls for the two identification methods. A total of 108 mammary quarters were genotipically identified by PCR-RFLP. Of these, 41 pairs of contralateral mammary quarters both with and without IIM caused by SCN were evaluated. Mammary quarters infected with CNS presented higher SCC (496.99 x 103 cells / mL) than contralateral healthy mammary quarters (160.79 x 103 cells / mL). Intramammary infection caused by CNS did not affect the milk yield and the concentrations of fat, protein, casein, lactose, total solids and solids not fat. Of the 108 samples identified by PCR-RFLP, 103 (95.37%) were also identified by MALDI-TOF MS with to the species level. Five CNS had reliable identification at genus level (Staphylococcus spp.). All the reference strains were correctly identified by both identification methods. The most prevalent species isolated from samples collected from cows with mastitis were Staphylococcus chromogenes (n = 80, 74.07%), followed by S. saprophyticus (n = 6, 5.55%) and S. haemolyticus (n = 5, 4.63%). In conclusion, subclinical mastitis caused by CNS increases the SCC, but do not affect the milk yield and composition. The MALDI-TOF MS is a sensitive method (95.37%) that can be used for the identification of CNS species causing mastitis. Staphylococcus chromogenes is the most prevalent CNS species isolated in the samples collected from cows with subclinical mastitis.

The initial aim of this work was to evaluate processing conditions for extended shelf life (ESL) milk to have a shelf life at refrigeration temperature of 60 d. Milk was processed on a pilot-scale ultra-high-temperature processing plant and evaluated for microbial and sensory quality over 60 d at 7°C storage. Results of this study showed that lower process temperatures were preferable to minimize cooked flavors and that the minimum safe processing temperature was 134°C for 4 s as determined by the destruction of bacterial spores in the processed milk. Consumer preference panel results indicated that consumers preferred milk processed at 134°C for 4 s (those recommended in this study for ESL processing) to commercial UHT milk although there was a slight preference for pasteurized milk. The critical sensory characteristic of the processed milk was a cooked flavor, which decreased with lower processing temperature and shorter storage time; however, a significant increase in flavors that could be associated with lipolytic activity was also noted. This study highlighted deficiencies in existing methods for determining heat-stable bacterial products in thermal-processed foods. No rapid, sensitive assay for detection of heat-stable spores or lipases in milk exists. If such assays were available, it would allow processors to determine Lipase activity and bacterial spore counts before processing and direct raw milk with low spore counts and low lipolytic activity into long-shelf-life products. To this end, assays to rapidly quantitate spores and lipolytic activity in milk were developed. The lipase assay relies on the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl caprylate liberating a yellow color that is detected using reflectance colorimetry. The assay is sensitive to 5 mUnits/ml and is linearly correlated to spectrophotometry (r2 = 0.93) and release of titratable free fatty acids (r2 = 0.92 to 0.97). An immunocapture, enzyme-linked immunoassay coupled with a fluorescent detection system was developed for and resulted in a prototype spore assay using Bacillus stearothermophilus spores. This organism was selected because it is extremely heat resistant, is commonly found in milk, and is associated with spoilage of milk and milk products. The assay was able to quantitate spores down to 103 cfu/ml in milk and other products in about 1.5 h. Other detection limits could be set if needed.

Des études dans le domaine plasma-biologie ont démontré l'effet biocide des jets plasma à pression atmosphérique (JPPAs), faisant de ces dispositifs une alternative aux traitements classiques de décontamination microbiologique. Le gaz (ou mélange de gaz) utilisé et la puissance injectée dans le plasma ont été identifiés comme des paramètres importants influençant l'efficacité biocide des jets plasmas. Récemment, il a été rapporté qu'un autre facteur pouvait influencer l'effet biocide des jets plasmas : la nature de la cible en interaction avec le jet. Cette thèse propose d'étudier l'influence de la nature d'une cible sur les propriétés physiques et biocides des jets plasmas. Dans un premier temps, le jet plasma a été caractérisé en l'absence de cible à l'aide d'outils de diagnostics électriques (sonde de tension, sonde de courant, oscilloscope) et optiques (caméra ICCD, spectromètre optique). Ainsi, la caméra ICCD a permis l'observation de la propagation d'une onde d'ionisation à des vitesses très élevées (de l'ordre du km.s-1). Dans un second temps, la caractérisation a porté sur l'interaction du jet plasma avec d'une part une cible diélectrique (10-10 S.m-1) et d'autre part une cible conductrice (6.0 107 S.m-1). Les résultats montrent que lorsque l'onde d'ionisation atteint la cible diélectrique, celle-ci se propage de manière radiale sur la surface de la cible formant une onde d'ionisation surfacique. Pour la cible conductrice, un canal s'établit entre la source plasma et la surface de la cible, suivi éventuellement par la propagation d'une onde d'ionisation secondaire de la surface de la cible en direction de la sortie de la source plasma. Enfin, afin d'évaluer l'influence de la nature de la cible sur l'efficacité biocide du jet plasma, des suspensions d'endospores de Bacillus atrophaeus et de bactéries Escherichia Coli ont été utilisées comme indicateur biologique. Les endospores et les bactéries ont été inoculées sur la surface des cibles diélectriques et conductrices, puis exposées au jet plasma. Les résultats montrent des modifications différentes sur le manteau des spores et une efficacité biocide plus élevée pour la cible conductrice comparée à la cible diélectrique. En résumé, cette thèse montre que les effets biocides des jets plasmas doivent être évalués dans les conditions expérimentales qui correspondent à l'application envisagée. / Studies in the plasma-biology field have demonstrated the biocidal effect of atmospheric pressure plasma jets (JPPAs), making these devices an alternative to conventional biological decontamination treatments. The gas (or gas mixture) used and the power injected into the plasma were identified as the parameters influencing the biocidal efficacy of plasma jets. Recently, it has been reported that another factor may influence the biocidal effect of plasma jets: the nature of the target in interaction with the jet. This thesis proposes to study the influence of the nature of a target on the biocidal properties of plasma jets. Initially, the plasma jet was characterized in the absence of a target using electrical (voltage probe, current probe, oscilloscope) and optical (ICCD camera, optical spectrometer) diagnostic tools. The ICCD camera allowed the observation of the propagation of an ionization wave at very high velocities (of the order of km.s-1). Secondly, the characterization focused on the interaction of the plasma jet with a dielectric target (10-10 S.m-1) and a conductive target (6.0 107 S.m-1). The results show that when the ionization wave reaches the dielectric target, it propagates radially on the surface of the target forming a surface ionization wave. For the conductive target, a channel is established between the plasma source and the target surface, possibly followed by propagation of a secondary ionization wave from the target surface towards the plasma source outlet. Finally, the influence of the target nature on the biocidal efficacy of the plasma jet was studied. Endospores suspensions of Bacillus atrophaeus and Escherichia coli bacteria were used as biological indicator. Endospores and bacteria were inoculated on the surface of the dielectric and conductive target and exposed to the plasma jet. The results show different changes on the spores coat's and higher biocidal efficiency for the conductive target compared to the dielectric target. In summary, this thesis shows that the biocide effects of plasma jets should be evaluated under the experimental conditions corresponding to the intended applications.

Contamination of groundwater that is suitable for drinking is of growing concern as the water supply of South Africa is becomingincreasingly limited. This is especially the case in the North West province, with its semi – arid climate and variable rainfall patterns. The aim of the study was to evaluate the microbiological and physico – chemical qualities of groundwater obtained from selected DWA (Department of Water Affairs) monitoring boreholes in the Mooi River and Harts River catchment areas. Physico -chemical parameters included temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), salinity, total dissolved solids (TDS), sulphate and nitrate concentrations. Physical parameters were measured using a calibrated submerge-able multimeter and chemical parameters using specialised kits and a spectrophotometer. Microbiological parameters included heterotrophic plate counts and total and faecal coliform enumeration. Membrane filtration and culture based methods were followed for enumeration of bacteria. During the identification procedures multiplex PCR for E. coli identification and 16S rRNA gene sequencing for identification of heterotrophic plate count bacteria and amoeba resistant bacteria were used. For antibiotic resistance, the Kirby- Bauer (1996) disk diffusion method was used. During the warm and wet season high electrical conductivity and salinity were observed in the Trimpark (65.3 mS/m; 325 ppm), School (125.1 mS/m; 644 ppm), Warrenton (166.9 mS/m; 867 ppm) and Ganspan (83.3 mS/m; 421 ppm) boreholes. Warrenton borehole had a high sulphate level (450 mg/l) as well. High chemical oxygen demand was observed in the Blaauwbank (62 mg/l) and Warrenton (98.5 mg/l) boreholes. In the dry and cold season similar observations were made for the various boreholes. Electrical conductivity and salinity levels remained high for the Trimpark (70.1 mS/m; 427.5 ppm), School (127 mS/m; 645 ppm), Warrenton (173.3 mS/m; 896.5 ppm) and Ganspan (88.1 mS/m; 444.5 ppm) boreholes. Nitrate levels for the Trimpark (14.1 mg/l) and School (137 mg/l), as well as sulphate levels for the Warrenton (325 mg/l) borehole were also high. Total coliforms, faecal streptococci and HPC bacteria were enumerated from water samples from all boreholes, except Blaauwbank where no faecal streptococci were enumerated. Faecal coliforms were enumerated from 5 of the possible 7 boreholes during a warm and wet season (Trimpark – 42 cfu/100ml; School – 2 cfu/100ml; Cemetery – 175 cfu/100ml; Warrenton – 3.84 x 10³ cfu/100ml; Ganspan – 1.9 x 10³ cfu/100ml). Indicator bacteria (FC, TC, HPC) exceeded target water quality ranges (TWQR) for drinking water in each case. During the cold and dry sampling season, faecal coliforms were enumerated mainly from the Trimpark (11 cfu/100ml) borehole. Total coliforms, faecal streptococci and HPC bacteria were enumerated from all the boreholes, except for Blaauwbank that contained no faecal streptococci or total coliforms. Enumerated indicator bacteria levels again exceeded TWQR for domestic use. Total coliform counts for the Pad dam borehole, however, complied with TWQR for domestic use. Identified E. coli were resistant to Erythromycin, Cephalothin and Amoxicillin and susceptible to Ciprofloxacin. Escherichia coli isolated from the Mooi River catchment shared the same antibiotic resistance phenotype. The most abundant HPC bacterial genus identified was Pseudomonas spp. (7 isolates). Opportunistic pathogens isolated included Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Bacillus cereus and Mycobacterium spp. Varying degrees of antibiotic resistance were observed. Generally, the same pattern between the same genera were observed. All HPC isolates were resistant to Cephalothin and Amoxicillin and a lower degree Erythromycin and Streptomycin. The most abundant amoeba resistant bacteria was identified as Pseudomonas spp. Other isolates included Alcaligenes faecalis and Ochrobactrum sp. and Achromobacter sp. All of these are opportunistic pathogens, except for Achromobacter. Resistance to more antibiotics (Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol, Cephalothin, and Amoxicillin) was observed in ARBs compared to HPC (Cephalothin, Amoxicillin) from bulk water from the same borehole. The water of all the aquifers sampled is of very poor physico - chemical or microbiological quality or both. Water may be used for irrigation or livestock watering only in the case where these boreholes comply with TWQR for said purposes. Results obtained indicate that the groundwater is faecally contaminated. Amongst the bacteria, opportunistic pathogens displaying various degrees of antibiotic resistance were frequently isolated. These results indicate health risks if untreated groundwater is consumed. Therefore groundwater needs to be treated before distribution especially if the water is for human consumption. / Thesis (MSc (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Contamination of groundwater that is suitable for drinking is of growing concern as the water supply of South Africa is becomingincreasingly limited. This is especially the case in the North West province, with its semi – arid climate and variable rainfall patterns. The aim of the study was to evaluate the microbiological and physico – chemical qualities of groundwater obtained from selected DWA (Department of Water Affairs) monitoring boreholes in the Mooi River and Harts River catchment areas. Physico -chemical parameters included temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), salinity, total dissolved solids (TDS), sulphate and nitrate concentrations. Physical parameters were measured using a calibrated submerge-able multimeter and chemical parameters using specialised kits and a spectrophotometer. Microbiological parameters included heterotrophic plate counts and total and faecal coliform enumeration. Membrane filtration and culture based methods were followed for enumeration of bacteria. During the identification procedures multiplex PCR for E. coli identification and 16S rRNA gene sequencing for identification of heterotrophic plate count bacteria and amoeba resistant bacteria were used. For antibiotic resistance, the Kirby- Bauer (1996) disk diffusion method was used. During the warm and wet season high electrical conductivity and salinity were observed in the Trimpark (65.3 mS/m; 325 ppm), School (125.1 mS/m; 644 ppm), Warrenton (166.9 mS/m; 867 ppm) and Ganspan (83.3 mS/m; 421 ppm) boreholes. Warrenton borehole had a high sulphate level (450 mg/l) as well. High chemical oxygen demand was observed in the Blaauwbank (62 mg/l) and Warrenton (98.5 mg/l) boreholes. In the dry and cold season similar observations were made for the various boreholes. Electrical conductivity and salinity levels remained high for the Trimpark (70.1 mS/m; 427.5 ppm), School (127 mS/m; 645 ppm), Warrenton (173.3 mS/m; 896.5 ppm) and Ganspan (88.1 mS/m; 444.5 ppm) boreholes. Nitrate levels for the Trimpark (14.1 mg/l) and School (137 mg/l), as well as sulphate levels for the Warrenton (325 mg/l) borehole were also high. Total coliforms, faecal streptococci and HPC bacteria were enumerated from water samples from all boreholes, except Blaauwbank where no faecal streptococci were enumerated. Faecal coliforms were enumerated from 5 of the possible 7 boreholes during a warm and wet season (Trimpark – 42 cfu/100ml; School – 2 cfu/100ml; Cemetery – 175 cfu/100ml; Warrenton – 3.84 x 10³ cfu/100ml; Ganspan – 1.9 x 10³ cfu/100ml). Indicator bacteria (FC, TC, HPC) exceeded target water quality ranges (TWQR) for drinking water in each case. During the cold and dry sampling season, faecal coliforms were enumerated mainly from the Trimpark (11 cfu/100ml) borehole. Total coliforms, faecal streptococci and HPC bacteria were enumerated from all the boreholes, except for Blaauwbank that contained no faecal streptococci or total coliforms. Enumerated indicator bacteria levels again exceeded TWQR for domestic use. Total coliform counts for the Pad dam borehole, however, complied with TWQR for domestic use. Identified E. coli were resistant to Erythromycin, Cephalothin and Amoxicillin and susceptible to Ciprofloxacin. Escherichia coli isolated from the Mooi River catchment shared the same antibiotic resistance phenotype. The most abundant HPC bacterial genus identified was Pseudomonas spp. (7 isolates). Opportunistic pathogens isolated included Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Bacillus cereus and Mycobacterium spp. Varying degrees of antibiotic resistance were observed. Generally, the same pattern between the same genera were observed. All HPC isolates were resistant to Cephalothin and Amoxicillin and a lower degree Erythromycin and Streptomycin. The most abundant amoeba resistant bacteria was identified as Pseudomonas spp. Other isolates included Alcaligenes faecalis and Ochrobactrum sp. and Achromobacter sp. All of these are opportunistic pathogens, except for Achromobacter. Resistance to more antibiotics (Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol, Cephalothin, and Amoxicillin) was observed in ARBs compared to HPC (Cephalothin, Amoxicillin) from bulk water from the same borehole. The water of all the aquifers sampled is of very poor physico - chemical or microbiological quality or both. Water may be used for irrigation or livestock watering only in the case where these boreholes comply with TWQR for said purposes. Results obtained indicate that the groundwater is faecally contaminated. Amongst the bacteria, opportunistic pathogens displaying various degrees of antibiotic resistance were frequently isolated. These results indicate health risks if untreated groundwater is consumed. Therefore groundwater needs to be treated before distribution especially if the water is for human consumption. / Thesis (MSc (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv., 2002. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.