Stroke causes CNS injury associated with strong fast microglial activation as part of the inflammatory response. Fast activation of microglia in response to neuronal damage requires the rapid availability of a large amount of energy to trigger diverse cytotoxic or neuroprotective signals. ATP-dependent potassium (K(ATP)) channels play important roles in many cellular functions by coupling cell metabolism to electrical activity. K(ATP) channels were first detected in cardiac myocytes and later found in beta-cells of the pancreas, skeletal muscle, neurons, smooth muscle, heart, pituitary, and tubular cells of the kidney. Our group and others have also demonstrated its expression in reactive microglia after brain injury. In rat models of stroke, blockade of the sulfonylurea receptor (SUR), with glibenclamide (Gbc) reduced cerebral edema and infarct volume. Furthermore, clinical data suggest the effectiveness of Gbc to treat stroke. Gbc close the K(ATP) channel by interaction with two drug-binding sites on SUR subunits, as well as, the astroglial NC(Ca-ATP) channel, which mediates the Gbc-induced prevention of edema after cerebral ischemia. In these studies however, the function of the K(ATP) channel remained unclear. Therefore, as Gbc may bind to constitute functional K(ATP) channels after ischemic stroke, other possible effects of Gbc might explain the effectiveness of this drug in the treatment of stroke. Giving the fact that, SUR1-regulated channels are exquisitely sensitive to changes in the metabolic state of the cell, and that microglia are sensing the environment, the expression of K(ATP) channels in activated microglia, will couple cell energy to membrane potential. We herein postulate, that the effectiveness of Gbc to treat stoke, at least in part, is caused by the KATP channel closure expressed by activated microglia, which may then be critical in determining, their participation in the pathogenic process. Given the analogy with beta-cells, K(ATP) channel blockade in microglia would response faster and more efficiently to the external signals released after brain injury. If true, blockade of microglial K(ATP) channel with low doses of Gbc during the early stages of stroke might foster neuroprotective microglial activity, could enhance ischemia-induced neurogenesis in the SVZ, and consequently will lead to an improved functional outcome. The work presented in this thesis demonstrates that, Gbc improves functional neurological outcome in stroke, accompanied by neuron preservation in the core of the ischemic brain. In this region, reactive microglia from tMCAO rats upregulate the K(ATP) channel, which makes microglia a target to Gbc actions in the early stages of stroke. Furthermore, Gbc also strengthens the neuroprotective role of microglia in the acute phase after focal cerebral ischemia, enhance long-term neurogenesis and brain repair processes. As such, identify microglial K(ATP) channels as a key target for stroke treatment. Overall, these results provide new therapeutic avenues for the treatment of other neurological disorders that involve microglia.

Das Chemokin SDF-1 spielt eine wichtige Rolle bei der Hämatopoese, bei Immunreaktionen sowie bei der Entwicklung des Herzens, der Extremitätenmuskulatur und des zentralen und peripheren Nervensystems. Lange Zeit galt CXCR4 als der einzige Chemokinrezeptor für SDF-1, bis vor wenigen Jahren CXCR7 als ein alternativer Rezeptor für SDF-1 identifiziert wurde. Da alle Zelltypen des zentralen Nervensystems (ZNS) sensitiv für SDF-1 sind, sollte in dieser Arbeit die Funktion der beiden Rezeptoren in primärer Mikroglia und primären Astrozyten untersucht werden. Bisher konnte CXCR7 nur als Scavenger-Rezeptor für SDF-1 oder als atypischer Chemokinrezeptor nachgewiesen werden. Die Untersuchungen ergaben einen mitogenen und chemotaktischen Effekt von SDF-1 auf primäre Mikroglia, wobei sowohl CXCR4 als auch CXCR7 für das SDF-1-Signalverhalten essentiell sind. Nach Aktivierung von Mikroglia in vitro und in vivo wurden beide Rezeptoren verstärkt expremiert. In primären Astrozyten ergab sich ein ligandenabhängiges Signalverhalten von CXCR7. So führte die Bindung von SDF-1 an CXCR7 zu einer Aktivierung von G-Proteinen, während die Kopplung von interferon-inducible T cell alpha chemoattractant (I-TAC), als zweiten Liganden von CXCR7, eine Signalweiterleitung über ß-Arrestin2 zur Folge hatte. Zudem konnte die G-Protein-gekoppelte Rezeptorkinase (Grk)2 als ein positiver Regulator des SDF-1-CXCR7-Signalverhaltens in Astrozyten identifiziert werden.

The rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) regulates vasomotor activity via sympathoexcitation and sympathoinhibition to maintain blood pressure. Nitric oxide synthesized by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) I and NOS II within RVLM is responsible for sympathoexcitation and sympathoinhibition respectively. In our previously study, under physiological condition RVLM neurons contain both NOS I and NOS II protein, and NOS III protein is expressed mainly on blood vessels. Under Mevinphos (Mev) intoxication, our previously study demonstrates that the expression of RVLM NOS I and II mRNA or protein are both increased under Mev intoxication phase I, and NOSII mRNA or protein are further increased under Mev intoxication phase II. On the other hand, in rat central nervous system, about 65% of total cells are glial cells, including astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes. However, the expressions of NOS isoforms in RVLM glial cells still need to be determined. We used double immunofluorescence staining and confocal microscopy to investigate the distributions of NOS isoforms protein in RVLM neurons and glial cells under physiological condition and under pathological condition using Mev intoxication as our model. We further compared the distributions of NOS isoforms in RVLM neurons and glial cells under physiological or pathological conditions. The confocal images indicate that NOS I protein reactivity co-localized with neurons and microglia in the RVLM. NOS II protein reactivity co-localized with neurons, astrocytes and microglia. NOS III protein reactivity co-localized with blood vessels and microglia. The distributions of NOS isoforms protein reactivity in RVLM neurons and glial cells under Mev intoxication are the same as under physiological condition. Furthermore, the expressions of NOS I protein within neurons or microglia and NOS II in neurons, astrocytes or microglia are progressively increased under Mev intoxication. On the other hand, the expression of NOS III within microglia under Mev intoxication was similar to physiological condition. The population of NOS I-positive neurons or microglia, and NOS II-positive neurons, astrocytes or microglia increased under Mev intoxication. However the population of NOS III-positive microglia decreased under Mev intoxication. These results indicate that within RVLM, the distributions of NOS I are in neurons and microglia; NOS II are in neurons, astrocytes and microglia; NOS III are in blood vessels and microglia. We suggest that under Mev intoxication, the source of up-regulated NOS I protein includes neurons and microglia; and the up-regulated NOS II protein comes from neurons, astrocytes and microglia.

Prevalence of HIV-associated cognitive impairment is rising, the worst form of which is HIV-associated dementia (HAD). The disease is fuiled by a chronic innate type pro-inflammatory response in the brain which is highly dependent upon the activation of microglia. We first created an in vitro model of HAD composed of cultured microglial cells synergistically activated by the addition of IFN-gamma and the HIV-1 coat glycoprotein, gp120. This activation, as measured by TNF-alpha and NO release, is synergistically attenuated through the alpha7nAChR and p44/42 MAPK system by pretreatment with nicotine, and the cholinesterase inhibitor, galantamine. As these medications have been FDA approved, and over time, have shown only minor improvement in neurodegenerative disease for a limited period, we next sought to explore natural compounds that may attenuate HAD mediated inflammation and related pathology. This inflammation is a key moderator of A-#914; plaque deposition in the brain. Indeed it is likely a contributing factor as epidemiological data suggests significant numbers of HIV survivors are at elevated risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD). HIV-1 Tat-induced A-beta deposition, tau phosphorylation, and subsequent neuronal death could be risk factors for subsequent AD and/or HAD. Recent reports suggest green tea-derived (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) can attenuate neuronal damage mediated by conditions such as brain ischemia. In order to investigate the therapeutic potential of EGCG to mitigate the neuronal damage characteristic of HAD, IFN- gamma was evaluated for its ability to enhance well-known neurotoxic properties of HIV-1 proteins gp120 and Tat in primary neurons and mice. Indeed, IFN-gamma enhanced the neurotoxicity of gp120 and Tat via increased JAK/STAT signaling. Additionally, primary neurons pretreated with a JAK1 inhibitor, or those from STAT1-deficient mice, were largely resistant to the IFN- gamma-enhanced neurotoxicity of gp120 and Tat. Moreover, EGCG treatment of primary neurons from normal mice reduced IFN-gamma-enhanced neurotoxicity of gp120 and Tat by inhibiting JAK/STAT1 pathway activation. EGCG was also found to mitigate the neurotoxic properties of HIV-1 proteins in the presence of IFN-#947; in vivo. To explore the mechanism by which HIV may augment AD-like pathology, we found HIV-1 Tat protein inhibits microglial uptake of A-beta-1-42 peptide, a process enhanced by IFN-#947; and rescued by EGCG. To mimic the HAD clinical condition, we generated mice with HIV-1 Tat-induced AD-like pathology by cross-breeding HIV-1 Tat expressing mice (expressed under control of GFAP, Doxycline inducible promoter) with the PSAPP mouse model of AD. To simulate chronic Tat secretion over we used an optimized dose of 54 mg/kg/day on a biweekly basis over three months Tat significantly induced neuron degeneration and tau phosphorylation in Tat transgenic mice, dox dependently (P<0.001). Similar effects at the chronic 54 mg/kg/day dose were observed in PSAPP/Tat mice induced with dox. These mice also showed significantly more A-beta deposition (P < 0.05), neurodegeneration, neuronal apoptotic signaling, and phospho-tau than PSAPP mice (P < 0.05). In conclusion, HIV-1 Tat significantly promotes AD-like pathology in PSAPP/Tat mice. This model may provide a framework in which to identify new mechanisms involved in cognitive impairment in the HIV infected population, and possible treatments. Additional works will be needed to fully characterize the mechanism(s) of HIV- induced amyloid deposition, and to uncover viral mechanisms promoting AD-like pathology in general.

Neuroinflammation is a major driving force in the progression of neurodegenerative disorders. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, as well as cannabinoid CB2 receptors, have been shown to have strong anti-inflammatory properties when activated. These effects are shown, in vivo, to be a result of stimulation of α7 nAChRs and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. Microglia cells, an immune cell in the brain, are shown to express both of these receptor subtypes. The studies detailed herein, investigated the ability of two compounds, nicotine and Δ9-THC, in modulation of inflammatory processes. Stimulation of these receptors on microglia using nicotine and Δ9-THC blocked the activation of these cells, observed through reductions in pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Reductions in inflammation as well as pathology in the PSAPP mouse model of Alzheimer’s Disease were also observed following nicotine and Δ9-THC administration. These data raise the possibility that α7 nAChRs and CB2 cannabinoid receptors may prove to be viable and effective strategy for reducing neuroinflammation observed in neurodegenerative disease.

In my dissertation research we used use human wild type α-synuclein gene expression using an adeno-associated viral vector (AAV9) that induced a slowly progressive loss of dopamine (DA) neurons in the Substantia nigra (SN) as one of our animal model of Parkinson’s disease (PD). It is our hypothesis that neuroinflammation predisposes the brain to susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases. Thus we examined the progression of a PD lesion and examined the manipulations of the immune system to understand further the inflammatory role when we administered exogenous soluble fractalkine. The specific etiology of neurodegeneration in PD is unknown, but the inflammatory mechanisms and free radicals have been postulated to play a central role. α-synuclein is believed to be the one of the main characteristic associated with PD. It has been found inside saclike structures, called lewy bodies. α-synuclein is believed to activate resident microglia worsening the degeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway due to its aggregation. Aggregation increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) released from microglia. The constant release of these factors and prolonged activation of microglia could be the cause that leads to neurodegeneration in the SN. Spirulina, a blue - green algae, has been shown to have anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. For example, when rats received an intrastriatal injection of 6-OHDA and were fed a spirulina enriched diet for 4 weeks, there was a significant increase in regeneration of DA terminals into the Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) -negative zone of the striatum. This regeneration was accompanied by a decrease in microglia activation as determined by immunohistochemistry of major histo compatibility class II (MHC) (OX-6). This suggests that decreases in microglia activation modulate the beneficial effects of spirulina. Another important therapeutic tool we used was fractalkine as an anti-inflammatory treatment. It is known that fractalkine levels are reduced in the brain during aging. For this reason we administered exogenous fractalkine to 6-OHDA model of PD to test the hypothesis that it improved the microenvironment by reducing microglial activation.

As a consequence of aging, the brain is subject to chronic neuroinflammatory conditions. The resident immune cells of the brain, microglia, act similarly to peripheral macrophages to protect the brain from insults, infection, and physical trauma. However, without proper regulation of their respective host defense mechanisms, these actions can become neurotoxic. In the healthy brain neurons have several signaling systems that directly interact with microglia in order to maintain a calming influence upon their actions, one of particular interest is the chemokine CX3CL1. This chemokine is found predominantly on neurons, while its cognate receptor CX3CR1 is found exclusively on microglia. There has been a recent surge in literature as to the exact role CX3CL1 signaling plays various physiological and neuropathological animal models, with still no well-defined role. In an attempt to address the current discordance regarding the role of CX3CL1 signaling we have used three different models. The first examines how genetic ablation of CX3CR1 impacts hippocampal dependent cognitive function. Secondly, we examined the impact of chronic LPS-induced neuroinflammation affects CX3CL1 signaling and ultimately cognitive function. Lastly, we used an acute mouse model of Parkinson's disease induced by MPTP to examine the effects of specific subtypes of CX3CL1. Although three unique approaches were used to examine the anti-inflammatory properties of CX3CL1, parallels can be drawn from the separate studies as similar results were obtained. CX3CL1 signaling has significant anti-inflammatory actions within the brain and alterations that prevent this signaling to occur can result in impairments in cognitive function as well as exacerbation of neurodegenerative conditions.

The peripheral immune system plays a role in delayed neural injury after stroke. This response originates from the spleen as splenectomy prior to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats significantly reduces infarct volume in the brain. This research is based on the hypothesis that inhibiting the splenic response will reduce neurodegeneration after stroke. Studies in animals have implicated lymphocytes as the immune cell type that is detrimental following MCAO. Interferon gamma (IFNγ) has been identified as a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is also detrimental following stroke. IFNγ is important because it activates microglia and macrophages in a pro-inflammatory nature that increases neural injury following stroke. Therefore IFNγ was examined in the brain and the spleen following MCAO. IFNγ protein was elevated at 24 h in the spleen and at 72 h in the brain post MCAO. Microglia/macrophages become maximally activated at 72 h in the brain after MCAO. Splenectomy decreases the levels of IFNγ in the brain following MCAO. Systemic administration of IFNγ reversed the protective effects of splenectomy. The cellular response to MCAO was examined next because of the difference in time between the spike in IFNγ in the spleen and the delayed increase in the brain. The cellular response from the spleen was studied by labeling splenocytes five days prior to MCAO with a fluorescein dye. Tissues were examined 48 and 96 h post MCAO or sham MCAO for fluorescence. These cells were released from the spleen into circulation at 48 h post MCAO and migrated to the brain where the cells produced IFNγ at 96 h post MCAO. IFNγ appears to play a role in the splenic response to stroke. One protein that is up regulated by cells that have been activated by IFNγ, interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) is part of the inflammatory cycle driven by IFNγ. IP-10 recruits more IFNγ producing T helper (Th) cells to the site of injury. IP-10 has the unique ability to attract Th1 cells, the pro-inflammatory Th cells, and inhibit Th2 cells, the anti-inflammatory Th cells. This leads to more IFNγ production as IFNγ is the signature cytokine of a Th1 response. IP-10 is significantly increased in the brain at 72 h post MCAO, similar to IFNγ expression. In the spleen IP-10 increased at 24 h and remained elevated out to 96 h following MCAO. IFNγ signaling was inhibited by utilizing an IFNγ neutralizing antibody administered beginning 24 h post MCAO. The IFNγ antibody treated group had decreased infarct volumes, IP-10 levels in the brain, and appeared to have decreased T cells in the ipsilateral hemisphere at 96 h post MCAO. Following ischemic stroke splenocytes are released into circulation and migrate to the brain. They release IFNγ to activate microglia/macrophages in a proinflammatory phenotype causing an increase in IP-10 levels. IP-10 then potentiates the Th1 driven inflammation which inhibits the Th2 response. The elevated levels of IFNγ increase neural injury following MCAO. Blocking IFNγ selectively blocks the inflammatory facet of the immune response to reduce stroke induced neurodegeneration. This leaves the other immune responses intact and able to contribute to tissue repair, regeneration, and able to respond to infections. Selectively inhibiting IFNγ signaling is a promising stroke therapeutic.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, a disease that gradually destroys brain cells and leads to progressive decline in mental function. The presence of high densities of neuritic plaques composed of Abeta in the cerebral cortices is a criterion for the post-mortem diagnosis of AD. The view that Abeta deposition drives the pathogenesis of AD (amyloid hypothesis) has received support from a wide range of molecular, genetic, and animal studies. This hypothesis has been the focus of therapeutic intervention leading to the development of anti-Abeta immunotherapy as a potential treatment. There is a great deal of evidence that supports the capacity of immunization against Abeta to reduce amyloid pathology and restore memory function in transgenic mouse models of amyloidogenesis. However, as a result of anti-Abeta immunotherapy, many investigators have reported increased severity of cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and increased incidences of microhemorrhage. The mechanism/s responsible for the redistribution of Abeta to the vasculature is unclear. We examine two possible mechanisms that may influence the severity of CAA following immunization; the rate of Abeta clearance with deglycosylated antibodies via a dose response study and anti-Abeta antibody epitope specificity. Dose response results with a deglycosylated antibody showed that lower doses resulted in greater clearance of amyloid and significant improvements in cognition, suggesting that clearance mechanisms become saturated with high doses of antibody. Treatment with antibodies directed against different epitopes of Abeta implied that the degree of parenchymal Abeta clearance determines the extent of vascular Abeta accumulation; epitope specificity is not critical in directing the vascular accumulation. Passive anti-Abeta immunization can prevent Abeta deposition in APP transgenic mice. We investigated amyloid accumulation after immunization was terminated, and discovered that after treatment, amyloid began to accumulate as a factor of time and gradually built up but never reached the Abeta levels in control APP mice. These data suggest that delayed deposition of amyloid leads to long term delays in AD associated pathology. These data strongly support the use of prophylactic immunotherapy treatments, and it appears that existing amyloid deposits will require interventions that actively clear amyloid as the only means to efficiently reduce brain Abeta in AD.

Für das Rett Syndrom, eine der häufigsten genetischen Ursachen für mentale Retardie-rung bei Frauen, gibt es bisher keine kausale Therapie, obwohl gentherapeutische Studi-en mit konditionellen knockout Mäusen gezeigt haben, dass es sich um eine therapierbare Erkrankung handelt. Um neue Therapien entwickeln zu können, werden Mausmodelle benötigt, die auf den beim Menschen am häufigsten gefundenen Mutation beruhen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein Mausmodell mit der häufigsten humanen Nonsense-Mutation R168X im Mecp2 Gen charakterisiert. Mit Hilfe dieses Mausmodells wurden dann die Therapieansätze der „Stop-Codon Readthrough-Therapie“ und einer Knochenmarktransplantation auf ihre Wirksamkeit in vitro und in vivo untersucht. Die Charakterisierung der Mauslinie zeigte, dass männliche MeCP2R168X-Mäuse im Gegensatz zu anderen MeCP2-Mausmodellen kein verkürztes MeCP2 Protein exprimieren. Desweiteren weisen männliche MeCP2R168X-Mäuse einen Phänotyp, inklu-sive der drastisch verkürzten Lebenspanne, auf, wie er bei bereits etablierten Mausmo-dellen für das Rett Syndrom beschrieben wurde. Dagegen zeigten weibliche, heterozy-gote MeCP2R168X-Mäuse nur einen sehr mild ausgeprägten Phänotyp verglichen mit bereits etablierten MeCP2-Mauslinien. Für die „Stop-Codon Readthrough-Therapie“ wurde die Effizienz der Aminoglykoside Geniticin, Gentamicin und Neomycin, der Komponenten NB54, NB84 und NB124, sowie der niedermolekularen Substanz PTC124 auf ihre Wirksamkeit bei der Induktion eines Readthroughs mit transfizierten HeLa-Zellen und MeCP2R168X/y-Mausohrfibroblasten in vitro untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich eine deutliche Steigerung der Readthrough-Effizienz der NB-Komponenten, gemessen an der detektierbaren Menge an MeCP2, mit zunehmender Generation (NB54 --> NB84 --> NB124) und gegenüber dem klinisch angewandten Gentamicin. Während die Behandlung mit Neomycin zu einem minimalen Readthrough-Produkt führte, zeigte die Behandlung mit PTC124 kei-nen messbaren Readthrough. Anschließend wurden männliche MeCP2R168X-Mäuse mit den in vitro getesteten Sub-stanzen, mit Ausnahme von Geniticin, behandelt. Die Expression eines MeCP2-Proteins voller Länge konnte durch keine der applizierten Substanzen induziert werden. Auch bei Behandlungen über einen längeren Zeitraum mit hohen Dosierungen, im Fall von Gentamicin nahe der LD50-Dosis und nachweisbarer intrazellulärer Aufnahme, konnte in den behandelten Tieren weder ein verkürztes noch ein MeCP2 Protein nativer Länge detektiert werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass für die „Stop-Codon Readthrough-Therapie“ für das Rett Syndrom neue Komponenten entwickelt werden oder andere Applikationswege gewählt werden müssen, da mit den derzeit verfügbaren Substanzen kein therapeutischer Erfolg erzielt werden kann. Im letzten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Theorie einer gestörten Phagozytose MeCP2-defizienter Mikroglia, sowie die Therapie von MeCP2-defizienten Mäusen durch eine Knochenmarktransplantation überprüft. Dabei konnte weder in vitro noch in vivo eine Veränderung der Phagozytoseaktivität der MeCP2-defizienten Mikroglia nachgewiesen werden, wie sie von Derecki und Kollegen publiziert wurde. Die Transplantation von gesundem Knochenmark führte bei männlichen MeCP2R168X-Tieren zu keiner Verlängerung der Überlebensspanne oder einer allgemeinen Abmilde-rung der Symptomatik, wie sie ebenfalls von Derecki und Kollegen publiziert wurde. Bei weiblichen Tieren führte die Transplantation gesunden Knochenmarks zu einer Verschlechterung der motorischen Fähigkeiten. Diese Ergebnisse sind im Einklang mit denen Ergebnissen der Arbeitsgruppen von An-drew Pieper, Antonio Bedalov und Jeffrey Neul, die in anderen Mausmodellen die Wir-kung der Knochenmarktransplantation untersuchten. Die Ergebnisse aller beteiligten Arbeitsgruppen legen daher nahe, dass eine Knochen-marktransplantation nach einer Ganzkörperbestrahlung keine geeignete Therapie für das Rett Syndroms darstellt.