In the years since Mao Zedongs death, the people of China have been impelled to reevaluate the legacy and character of their still iconic leader. One of the more notable trends in this process of posthumous reevaluation is the tendency of some individuals and groups (most often, the rural peasantry) to interpret the deceased Chairman along theological lines, assuming that his still efficacious spirit will provide protection and good fortune to those who honour him.<p>In exploring the genesis (and continued salience) of these beliefs and practices, the present research delves into popular Chinese religiosity, exploring the porosity of the traditional cosmology, the centrality of perceived spiritual efficacy (ling) in determining the popularity of religious cults, and the theological and cosmological resonances extant within traditional understandings of political leadership. The body of metaphors, narratives, and tropes drawn from this historical overview are then applied to popular characterizations of Mao, with the resulting correspondences helping to explicate the salience of these modern religious interpretations. To further investigate the source of Maos persistent symbolic capital, the present research also explores the role of Cultural Revolution-era ritual in valorizing and reifying the power and efficacy then popularly ascribed to the Great Helmsmans person and teachings. This studys conclusion, in brief, is that participants in the posthumous cult of Mao are utilizing these cultural materials in both traditional and creative ways, and that such interpretations speak to the exigencies of life in the turbulent, ideologically ambiguous culture of modern China. <p>In performing this evaluation, the present research makes use of the standard phenomenological/historiographic approach of religious studies scholarship, though it is also informed by narrative methods, cognitive science, and current perspectives on the role and function of ritual. In particular, the analysis of Mao-era rituals (as a source of Maos continued symbolic potency) is performed using the cognivistic typology of ritual proposed by E. Thomas Lawson and Robert N. McCauley, with additional materials drawn from the research of Catherine Bell, Roy Rappaport, Pascal Boyer and Adam Chau.

張灝先生曾指出中國近代思想具有一個轉型期。在這轉型期中，傳統概念資源在新時代命題下受到挑戰，使得中國知識分子必須在一個萬國之新世界秩序下，重新擘畫中國的位置，因此在中國要回應內在取向危機與外在列強的挑戰下，便啟動了思想轉型的旅程，上述這段從傳統到現代的發展過程，即稱之為中國近代思想史的轉型時代。「平等」觀念作為中國近代知識分子戮力追求的新價值，自然也經歷了這段思想轉型的過程；在轉型過程中隨著張灝先生所指出中國近代思想之普遍主義/特殊主義雙層建構現象，「平等」論述也呈現出普遍性平等與特殊性平等觀的雙重展演。本文即是欲從轉型時代的角度出發，觀察「平等」觀念從傳統發展至現代的過程中，如何在普遍性上成為中國近代知識分子於理想上的永恆追求；又如何在特殊性上滿足不同行動者於現實層面的生命–政治目的。追尋中國近代平等觀念在轉型時代中的發展，以及平等觀念如何回應中國近代三大兩歧命題：傳統/現代、理想/現實、政界/家界的矛盾與拉扯，即為本文之主要研究目的與論述核心所在。 本文在研究範圍上，主要以康有為、嚴復、章太炎等三人「平等」論述為主，而旁及中國近代其他知識分子的平等觀，以及與平等觀念發展相伴共生的其他相關近代論述。而在研究方法上，則採用綜合的觀念史研究法，一方面觀察宏觀面向的中國近代平等觀念史發展及其類型結構，一方面觀察微觀部分的論者個體「以言行事」(Illocutionary Act)與「以言取效」(Perlocutionary Act)的平等論述內在動機；而上述兼顧宏觀與微觀的綜合觀念史研究法，則必須透過數位人文技術(Digital Humanities)的協助才能達到研究方法循環，故本文研究即由綜合的觀念史研究法與數位人文研究法合作完成。而在研究結果上，本文分析了康有為、嚴復、章太炎等三人平等觀後，提出中國近代平等觀念的形成發展，依序有啟蒙平等、救亡平等、革命平等的歷時性發展特徵；以及三人皆各自代表了國學近代化下的儒家平等、道家平等、佛家平等觀之觀念類型。並在描繪出三人平等觀的特殊性後，更進一步地勾勒出三人平等觀的普遍性意義，即僅追求政界平等而不論家界秩序，呈現出一種有別於五四時期激進式三綱平等訴求的漸進式平等觀念形態，本文認為漸進式平等即是晚清平等觀念最為特殊之展演。 在本文研究貢獻上，則是對以往學者大都認為西方觀念一入中國，就立即挑戰了三綱，而呈現出三綱同時瓦解的主張進行商榷。本文認為以往學者忽略了晚清時期有一批知識分子，他們戮力於緩解家界倫常的平等革命而不贊成家界平等，這一行動群體的存在是前輩學者較為忽略的部份。因此本文透過康有為、嚴復、章太炎等三人，勾勒出中國近代知識分子中僅追求政界革命而反對家界革命一派的主張，並動態刻劃這個群體與主張三綱平等的無政府主義者之對詰過程，豐富清末民初歷史研究的厚度，即為本文之研究貢獻。 而在康有為以儒學本土資源完成啟蒙平等觀的建構、嚴復從道學出發建構救亡平等觀，以及章太炎從佛學會通革命平等觀的行動過程中，也標示了一個晚清階段國學再造的特殊意義，即：中國近代知識分子在意圖透過會通傳統本土資源與西方觀念，以追求啟蒙、救亡、革命目的下，也順勢促成了中國傳統國學的近代化發展。而中國近代平等觀念中所呈現出的國學近代化色彩僅為一個面向，中國近代知識分子乃是透過對於整個傳統國學觀念系統內涵的轉置，來強化國學與西方文明之間的對話能力，並完成國學從傳統邁入現代的再造歷程。故將來可從「國學近代化」的角度出發，觀察各種本土觀念如何透過與西學會通，完成中國近代思想觀念從傳統到現代的轉型過程，藉此更整全地掌握中國近代思想轉型之樣態，此即本文具有借鑑性之理論意義與推廣前景所在。

In the years since Mao Zedongs death, the people of China have been impelled to reevaluate the legacy and character of their still iconic leader. One of the more notable trends in this process of posthumous reevaluation is the tendency of some individuals and groups (most often, the rural peasantry) to interpret the deceased Chairman along theological lines, assuming that his still efficacious spirit will provide protection and good fortune to those who honour him.<p>In exploring the genesis (and continued salience) of these beliefs and practices, the present research delves into popular Chinese religiosity, exploring the porosity of the traditional cosmology, the centrality of perceived spiritual efficacy (ling) in determining the popularity of religious cults, and the theological and cosmological resonances extant within traditional understandings of political leadership. The body of metaphors, narratives, and tropes drawn from this historical overview are then applied to popular characterizations of Mao, with the resulting correspondences helping to explicate the salience of these modern religious interpretations. To further investigate the source of Maos persistent symbolic capital, the present research also explores the role of Cultural Revolution-era ritual in valorizing and reifying the power and efficacy then popularly ascribed to the Great Helmsmans person and teachings. This studys conclusion, in brief, is that participants in the posthumous cult of Mao are utilizing these cultural materials in both traditional and creative ways, and that such interpretations speak to the exigencies of life in the turbulent, ideologically ambiguous culture of modern China. <p>In performing this evaluation, the present research makes use of the standard phenomenological/historiographic approach of religious studies scholarship, though it is also informed by narrative methods, cognitive science, and current perspectives on the role and function of ritual. In particular, the analysis of Mao-era rituals (as a source of Maos continued symbolic potency) is performed using the cognivistic typology of ritual proposed by E. Thomas Lawson and Robert N. McCauley, with additional materials drawn from the research of Catherine Bell, Roy Rappaport, Pascal Boyer and Adam Chau.

Текущий уровень развития теории перевода на китайский язык не соответствует потребностям академических кругов. В настоящее время теория китайского перевода полностью не определена, и специфика условий ее развития имеет смысл. Цель данной статьи - изучить и проанализировать текущую ситуацию, систематизировать и обобщить накопленные данные по данной теме. Поскольку китайская переводческая индустрия находится на стадии становления, мы выдвинули наши собственные предложения и новые идеи по основному историческому направлению развития китайских теорий перевода на основе обширного анализа и на основе результатов существующих исследований. Теория китайского перевода нацелена на сохранение собственной идентичности и адаптацию успешного опыта Запада к его реальности. / The current level of development of the theory of translation into Chinese does not correspond to the needs of the academic community. At present, the theory of Chinese translation is not fully defined, and the specifics of the conditions for its development make sense. The purpose of this article is to study and analyze the current situation, systematize and summarize the accumulated data on this topic. As the Chinese translation industry is in its infancy, we have put forward our own proposals and new ideas for the main historical direction of the development of Chinese translation theories based on extensive analysis and based on the results of existing research. The theory of Chinese translation is aimed at preserving one's own identity and adapting the successful experience of the West to its reality.

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Considéré généralement comme objet de l’art, sujet de la littérature et catégorie de l’esthétique chinoise, shanshui, les « montagnes-eaux », est censé relever d’un sentiment et d’une conception de la nature relativement différente de celle de l’Occident. Or la construction moderne de shanshui au prisme de la nature n’intègre la multiple pratique paysagère historiquement fondée dans la tradition lettrée, inextricablement liée à l’invention des montagnes-eaux : l’érémitisme, la recherche d’immortalité, l’excursion, la réunion littéraire lettrée, la création poétique, picturale et du jardin. Centrée sur l’histoire tri-séculaire après la chute de la Dynastie Han, en exposant les conjonctures particulières, analysant la notion ‘ziran’ dans l’étude du Mystère, rassemblant et traduisant les écrits et poèmes thématiques qui témoignent des mouvements et tendances extra-mondains dans les milieux lettrés sous les Wei-Jin (220-420), cette thèse vise à montrer que shanshui, plutôt que d’être constitué par la dualité nature/art, est inventé comme un paradigme confrontant, dans une bipolarisation de la réalité lettrée à cette époque, l’espace confucéen et l’espace taoïste, le service et la retraite, les affaires mondaines et la recherche de l’idéal par-delà la société. Autour de shanshui se cristallisent les idées-valeurs comme l’authenticité, la dévotion, la vertu, la liberté, le naturalisme, le mysticisme, la créativité et la transcendance immanente, en cela, nous supposons la co-naissance des montagnes-eaux et d’un idéal-type de l’humanisme classique chinois. / Generally regarded as the object of art, the subject of literature and Chinese aesthetic category, Shanshui (mountains-waters) is believed to be relevant to aesthetical feelings as well as the philosophical concept of nature that is different from that of the West. However, the modern construction of Shanshui through the prism of nature does not integrate the multiple landscape practices historically founded in the gentry's tradition, which had contributed to the invention of mountains-waters: eremitism, immortality seeking, excursion, gathering of literary circles, and the creation of poetry, paintings and gardens. Focusing on the history of Wei-Jin (220-420) after the fall of the Han dynasty, exposing the particular contexts, analyzing the notion of 'Ziran' in the Xuanxue school, gathering and translating the writings and thematic poems showing the extra-mundane movements and tendencies in literate milieus under this time, this thesis aims to show that Shanshui, rather than being constituted by the duality of nature and art, has been invented as a cultural paradigm to confront, in a bipolarization of the reality of ruling gentry class, the Confucian space and the Taoist space, service and disengagement, mundane concerns and pursuit of the Ideal beyond society. Around Shanshui the ideas and values such as authenticity, deep affection, virtue, liberty, naturalism, mysticism, creativity and immanent transcendence are crystallized, in this way, we may assume the co-birth of mountains-waters and an ideal type of Chinese classical humanism. / 山水研究以往側重于詩歌，繪畫與哲學分析，并普遍將山水視為自然再現，自然情感與某種不同於西方自然觀的審美表達。然而，“相對不同”的判定卻是建立在自然／文化兩分的現代二元范式的“普世應用”上的。因為僅僅強調山水源於“發現自然”並不能整合與山水緊密相關且貫穿於士傳統中的文化實踐：如隱逸，遊仙，遊覽，雅集，以及對世外理想之境的不懈書寫，描畫與營造。本論文考察了魏晉時期(220-420)的社會，政治與文化背景：名教自然的對立，隱逸遊仙的結合，魏晉風度，衣冠南渡，僑立，宗教興起，道釋義理在文化士族內部經由玄學促生的思想轉向等；通過分析魏晉玄學中的自然概念，整理翻譯相關的歷史文本與詩歌，試圖說明，與其說山水是自然／藝術的二元構建，毋寧說山水是士階層在仕與隱，經世與玄遠，世表與塵外的現實兩極化中所創建的一種文化範式。圍繞山水，凝聚了一系列具有重要文化特徵的理念与價值——保真，養身，自足，逍遙，自然主義，暢神玄覽，內在超越與審美理想。這意味著與山水共生的是一種中國古典人文主義的理想型。

La tesi si concentra sul Partito Nazionalista Cinese negli anni Venti come punto privilegiato di osservazione del cambiamento politico della Cina dopo la Prima guerra mondiale. Questo decennio rappresentò un momento di definizione identitaria sia per i comunisti sia per i nazionalisti. La storiografia ne ha sottolineato numerosi aspetti, ma si è finora occupata del periodo 1919-1928 come una preistoria degli anni Trenta piuttosto che come un autonomo segmento di storia cinese. Studi recenti hanno superato implicitamente questo approccio criticando due date periodizzanti fondamentali per il Novecento cinese: la nascita della Repubblica nazionalista (1911) e la nascita della Repubblica Popolare (1949). A metà tra queste due date, gli anni Venti sono emersi come snodo decisivo nel passaggio da impero a Stato nazionale, durante cui si definì un nuovo spazio di discussione politica. Questo processo, pur interno, subì l’influsso delle strategie internazionali di sovietici e statunitensi dando vita a una nuova visione non soltanto della rivoluzione ma anche dello Stato post-rivoluzionario. Le classi dirigenti nazionalista e comunista, durante la collaborazione, si rivelarono dinamiche e tale “competizione” si trasferì anche all’interno di ciascun movimento diventando un fattore determinante per il successo o il fallimento del partito inteso come moderna formazione politica. / The thesis focuses on the Chinese Nationalist Party in the 1920s as a special standpoint to analyze the political changes in China after the World War I. That decade was crucial for shaping the identity of nationalists and communists. Many works have already examined some aspects, but they mostly considered the years 1919-1928 as a pre-history of the Thirties rather than an autonomous part of Chinese history. Recent studies have overcome this approach by criticizing two of the main periodization in the Chinese twentieth century: the birth of the nationalist Republic (1911) and the birth of the People’s Republic (1949). Halfway, the 1920s stood out as a critical juncture in the transition from empire to nation-state. A new space of political discussion was defined. The process, albeit internal, was under the influence of the USSR and US international strategies and gave birth not only to a new vision of the revolution, but also to a vision of the post-revolutionary state. Also, the nationalist and communist leaderships turned out to be dynamic. That "competition" may be seen also within the two political movements and became a shaping factor for the success or failure of the party as a modern political formation.