The aim of this dissertation is to shed light on an oft-overlooked aspect of Hobbes’ and Locke’s educational theories. Specifically, this dissertation examines the role of mothers in Hobbes’ Locke’s, and Wollstonecraft’s political theories and defends the claim that mothers have an overlooked, important role to play in civic society insofar as they contribute to educating children to become good members of civic society. To date, scholars working on Hobbes and Locke have largely focused on only one type of education and its relationship to civic society. Specifically, they have focused on civic education. Civic education refers to formal programs, such as day school or university curricula aimed at molding individuals into citizens or subjects, capable of sustaining a thriving commonwealth. However, when scholars focus on civic education, they miss part of the story surrounding how Hobbesian and Lockean education is implemented because not all of their educational program can be contained in formal schooling. In the Chapters 1 and 2 of the dissertation, I show that mothers play a role in educating future subjects and citizens in Hobbes’ and Locke’s theories by means of what I call civic socialization. Civic socialization refers to the informal processes by which children are educated to become good subjects and citizens who contribute to the wellbeing and stability of the commonwealth. In Chapter 3, I consider whether mothers’ role in civic socialization is compatible with early modern, liberal theories. Insofar as Hobbes and Locke are early modern, liberal thinkers, they maintain that men and women are naturally equal. However, mothers’ role in civic socialization often results in their subordination to fathers. Mary Wollstonecraft, although a figure in modern philosophy, is useful for showing this tension. In her theory, even when mothers are highly educated, their role in civic socialization often means that mothers must use their education for the benefit of their children and not for themselves. / 2020-11-27T00:00:00Z

This study explores the accounts of first generation East Asian mothers living in England, for the purpose of examining if and how these women perceive their national and/or ethnic cultural heritage has affected their experiences and identity formation. In order to achieve this aim, the thesis investigates the gendered division of labour within the family and discourse around motherhood and employment, using biographical interviews with 30 first generation East Asian mothers with children under the age of 11. I develop an integrative theoretical framework by deploying various theories in order to analyse the complex and dynamic characteristics of identity formation for ethnic minority mothers. The concepts I draw on are ideology and discourse, storytelling and ‘othering’, patriarchy, masculinity and femininity, nation, ethnie, culture, class and intersectionality. The data was analysed by using discourse analysis, focusing on discursive themes across interview data, in conjunction with detailed narrative analysis of the individual life stories of four of the women. The findings of the data indicated that despite the increasing involvement of male partners in childcare and domestic work, women’s stories suggested that they continued to take on the majority of household labour. In addition, this pattern was more prominent among East Asian couples than mixed ethnic couples. This is suggestive of the persistent influence of the Confucian patriarchal norms among East Asian couples outside East Asia. Alongside this, the examination of discourse and narratives around motherhood and employment indicated that the motherhood ideologies of individual women, influenced by national and/or ethnic cultural heritage, had a major impact on mothers’ decision towards childcare and employment. For example, the majority of mothers from Korea and some mothers from Japan tended to endorse an intensive mothering ideology, in which women were expected to stay at home devoting their time and energy to looking after their children. The talk of home-stay mothers was dominated by the importance of the mother’s care for the psychological wellbeing of their children. In this discourse the mother’s absence was portrayed as having a detrimental effect on the healthy development of young children. But rather than referring to a Western notion of intensive motherhood (see Hays 1996), they talked of their decisions in reference to the way that mothers and fathers were expected to act in their country of origin. This contrasted with the discourse of employed mothers (especially from China), which did not necessarily support the incessant presence and availability of mothers for children, regarding childcare as replaceable by others, such as grandparents. The Chinese women talked of this in reference to their perception of the culture in China where all adults are expected to work, regardless of childcare responsibilities. However, despite notable differences in discourse around ‘good’ mothering and employment between home-stay mothers and employed mothers, the gendered idea about men’s and women’s roles seemed to continue to affect the predominant majority of women in my study, irrespective of their employment status. Hence, both home-stay and most employed mothers remained to be the primary care provider as well as taking the major burden of household labour, being subject to a gendered understanding of motherhood and womanhood.

This study is concerned with the pre-marital environmental factors that might influence the declining birth rate among college women. There have been some studies made on this subject, but none of them has taken into consideration so many variables, to the writer's knowledge, as are recognized in this survey.

Introdução Historicamente, em razão da reprodução ocorrer nos corpos das mulheres, elas ficaram restritas à esfera doméstica. Apesar das mudanças ocorridas, especialmente em razão da entrada maciça de mulheres no mercado de trabalho, a dimensão social da reprodução, ou seja, o trabalho do cuidado, é ainda hoje realizado majoritariamente por elas, fazendo com que sejam discriminadas tendo, assim, restrito o exercício de seus direitos humanos. Objetivo O objetivo principal deste estudo foi verificar a pertinência de se propor o reconhecimento de uma nova categoria de direitos para mulheres que são mães, que quando garantidos, oferecem o suporte social necessário para o exercício da maternidade. Método - Trata-se de estudo empírico de natureza qualitativa, realizado com jovens mães acolhidas juntamente com seus filhos em uma instituição privada, sem fins lucrativos, cuja missão é resgatar a cidadania e desenvolver a auto-estima de jovens mães em situação de vulnerabilidade. Após a aprovação pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa, foi feita uma observação etnográfica da instituição. Posteriormente, foram realizadas oito entrevistas semi-estruturadas com as jovens mães residentes e analisados documentos institucionais. Os dados foram analisados a partir da construção de categorias a priori bem como a posteriori e interpretados à luz do referencial teórico adotado. Resultados - A análise documental do Direito descreve os direitos humanos das mulheres previstos na normativa nacional e internacional, bem como as teorias críticas feministas do Direito. Os resultados da pesquisa empírica, por sua vez, indicam que a instituição, apesar de algumas limitações, é capaz de, por um lado, oferecer às jovens mães o suporte social necessário ao exercício da maternidade e, de outro, romper o ciclo vicioso de miséria, vulnerabilidade e violência a que as jovens estavam submetidas antes do acolhimento. Conclusões A análise dos resultados permite que se proponha uma nova categoria de direitos humanos denominada direitos maternos que são compostos pelos direitos reprodutivos, direito à habitação, direito ao trabalho e à renda, e por fim, direitos sexuais que, em articulação, asseguram o exercício da maternidade de forma digna, promovendo assim a igualdade de gênero e não-discriminação das mulheres / Introduction Historically, the fact that reproduction occurs in the body of women justified their restriction in the domestic sphere. Despite the changes in recent decades, especially due to the massive entry of women into the labor market, they are still responsible for the work of care, which is the social dimension of reproduction. They are, for that reason, discriminated and have the exercise of their human rights limited. Objectives - The main objective of this study was to assess the pertinence of proposing the recognition of a new category of rights for women who are mothers, able to provide the social support necessary for motherhood. Methods - This is a qualitative empirical study, conducted with young mothers with their children, who live in a private, nonprofit institution, whose mission is to recover the citizenship and to rebuild the selfesteem of young mothers living in extremely vulnerable situations. After the approval of the research project by the Commission for Ethical Research, an ethnographic observation was conducted in the institution. Eight semi-structured interviews were done with the young women and institutional documents were verified. Data were analyzed in view of a set of a priori and a posteriori categories, which were interpreted in the light of the theoretical framework adopted. Results The documental analysis of the Law describe the human rights of women established in national and international regulations, as well as feminist critical theories of law. The results of the empirical research, by its turn, indicate that the institution, despite some limitations, offers the necessary social support for motherhood and is capable of breaking the vicious cycle of poverty, vulnerability and violence that young women experienced in their lives. Conclusions - The analysis of results allows the proposition of a new category of human rights, hereby called \'maternal rights\', which are composed of reproductive rights, housing rights, right to work and to income and, finally, sexual rights. Together, once guaranteed, they can ensure that the experience of motherhood will be lived with dignity, thereby promoting gender equality and non-discrimination against women

Este estudo descreve as histórias de dez jovens, que vivenciaram a maternidade na faixa etária de 10-14 anos de idade, no município de Mairiporã, SP, no período de agosto de 2004 a agosto de 2005. Tendo como objetivo “(re) conhecer o significado da maternidade para jovens que vivenciaram a experiência, a partir do processo de compreensão de suas histórias de vida", e refletir sobre as condições de vulnerabilidade, procedemos a um estudo de análise qualitativa, utilizando como procedimentos metodológicos a técnica de história oral, para coleta de dados e, para a análise do material, a técnica de análise de conteúdo. As entrevistas, gravadas e transcritas integralmente e posteriormente recortadas para análise, foram realizadas com jovens, identificadas a partir de declarações de nascidos vivos, obtidos junto ao Cartório de Registro Civil de Mairiporã. Os achados foram analisados, contemplando dois momentos: antes do nascimento do bebê e após o nascimento do bebê, adotando categorias temáticas específicas. A primeira parte aborda a vivencia da infância, a família e o relacionamento familiar, o ficar mocinha, o namoro, a gravidez, as reações à gravidez, o pré-natal e o parto. A segunda parte refere-se a vivencia da jovem após o nascimento do bebê, os cuidados com o bebê, o relacionamento com o parceiro, o relacionamento mãe-filho, as dificuldades, o significado da maternidade, os sonhos, mensagem para adolescentes e para pais. As histórias detalham como se deu o desenrolar de suas vidas dentro do seu contexto histórico e social, contemplando o processo de desenvolvimento desde a infância, a passagem pela adolescência, com as características próprias, quando engravidou até o momento presente no papel de mãe. O significado da maternidade para as jovens foi evidenciado por quatro eixos centrais: felicidade por ser mãe, senso de responsabilidade, sentimento de arrependimento e perdas e mudanças em suas vidas. Os sonhos se expressaram em vontade de estudar, trabalhar, ter uma casa e independência dos pais. As mensagens dirigidas a adolescentes foram para que se previnam para não engravidar, usando preservativo, tomando pílula, que tenham juízo e não percam a juventude; e, a pais, que conversem mais com os filhos e não sejam violentos, autoritários ou omissos, e que as mães orientem mais seus filhos. / This study describes the stories of ten young girls aged 10-14 years who experienced motherhood in the city of Mairiporã, São Paulo, during the period between August 2004 and August 2005. Once the objective was to “know the meaning of maternity of young girls who have lived this experience by considering the understanding process of their life stories", and to reflect on vulnerability conditions, and a qualitative study was carried out by adopting oral history technique for data collection and content analysis technique for data analysis. The interviews were recorded, fully transcribed and prepared for analysis. They were conducted with young girls, identified by birth certificates from a registry office in Mairiporã. The findings were analyzed according to two distinguished periods: before and after the baby’s birth. The first one describes childhood experience, family relationship, first period, dating, pregnancy, prenatal care and delivery. The second one refers to baby care, partner relationship, mother-child relationship, difficulties, the meaning of maternity, dreams and advice for adolescents and parents. The stories detail their lives within their historical and social contexts from childhood to adolescence, including its peculiarities, and from pregnancy to the present role of mother. Four thematic categories signifying maternity were revealed: happiness for being a mother, sense of responsibility, feelings of regret and loss and changes in their lives. Wishes were expressed by the willingness to study, work, have their own home and be independent from parents. The messages addressed to adolescents draw attention to prevention: condom use, use of contraceptive pills, being reasonable and not loosing their youth. The messages addressed to parents include more dialogue with children and absence of violence, authoritarianism and negligence. Also, mothers are expected to give their children a stronger sense of direction.

Throughout history women have been excluded from leading positions. Today, however, there is an equal gender distribution among Swedish managers, which by some is seen as a result of the Nordic model. Despite this, current statistics show that women tend to have a greater responsibility over child rearing and household duties. The aim of this study is to examine female leaders’ experiences of combining family and career, the challenges they face, and if these differ from male leaders. Previous research on women’s work commitment has shown that mothers are not less committed to their careers than women without children. At the same time other studies show that working mothers feel guilty over not being good enough parents. This study is based on eight qualitative interviews with female and male leaders in Sweden. The study shows that the female participants face challenges to their careers because of traditional gender norms, however these norms do not disfavour the male participants. This study also illustrates that the female subjects meet greater expectations both in their roles as leaders as well as in their roles as parents. Gender norms regarding motherhood result in that the women are made to feel guilty if traditional expectations go unmet. This is not something experienced by any of the male participants.

O que quer uma mulher? Essa questão permaneceu enigmática na obra de Freud. Alguns psicanalistas apontaram a maternidade como uma das respostas para a insondável questão do ser... mulher. O campo privilegiado da discussão desta tese é a articulação entre a feminilidade e a maternidade, num percurso de investigação dos textos freudianos, das teorizações pós-freudianas e das formulações lacanianas. Consiste em um estudo teórico-clínico, motivado por questões surgidas na experiência psicanalítica com sujeitos femininos, diante dos impasses do ser mãe e do ser mulher. Freud entendeu a maternidade como caudatária da função fálica na menina, mas manteve em aberto a questão sobre o enigma da feminilidade. A querela do falo permaneceu com os pós-freudianos; que enfatizaram o papel da mãe, a partir do discurso sobre o amor materno. Lacan, ao postular um mais-além do pai, realizou a promoção da sexualidade da mulher, enfatizando o desejo da mulher na mãe. Para destacar a disjunção entre a mãe e a mulher, esse estudo realiza a análise da histeria no romance Memória de duas jovens esposas (Honoré de Balzac, 1955) e da paranóia, a partir do Emílio (Rousseau, 1762) e do caso Aimée (Jacques Lacan, 1932). Para concluir, salienta a divisão entre a mãe e a mulher, articulando-as às vertentes de desejo e gozo, próprios aos sujeitos femininos. / What does a woman want? This question has remained enigmatic in Freud´s work. Some psychoanalysts indicated maternity as one of the answers for the unsoundable question of being... a woman. The privileged discussion topic of this study is the articulation between femininity and maternity, in an investigation path of Freudian texts, of post-Freudian theories and Lacanian formulations. It consists of a clinical-theoretical study, motivated by questions originated in the psychoanalytical experience with female subjects, in face of the impasses of being a mother and a woman. Freud understood maternity as being submissive to the phallic function of a girl, but kept in open the question related to the enigma of femininity. The indictment of phallus remained with the post-Freudians who emphasized the role of the mother, from the discourse on maternal love. Lacan, when postulating on something else more than a father, promoted women´s sexuality, emphasizing the woman´s wish in the mother. To point out the disjunction between the woman and the mother, this study proposes an analysis of histery in the novel Memoirs of Two Young Wives (Honoré de Balzac, 1955) and of paranóia, from Émile (Rousseau, 1762) and also in Aimée´s case (Jacques Lacan, 1932). All in all, it stresses the division between the mother and the woman, articulating them to the slopes of desire and joy, totally related to female subjects.

Drawing on the Western feminist tradition to analyze modern childcare advice as part of the "institution of motherhood" (Adrienne Rich), this dissertation explores the role played by the advice literature on childcare in the construction of normative motherhood in Russia from the late Imperial period through Soviet times, from 1890 to 1990. The study focuses on the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy (the OMM) movement, launched by medical professionals at the turn of the twentieth century as a philanthropic project aimed at combating high infant mortality in the country, and follows its transformation after 1917 into the state-sponsored and state-regulated system of medical and economic support for Soviet mothers and children. The fragmented notion of femininity in the Soviet Union, which incorporated both the ideology of women's emancipation (constructed primarily as women's participation in the labor force) and the pronatalist emphasis on women's roles as mothers created a complex interplay between the "emancipatory" and the traditionalist discourses of motherhood in childrearing literature. Due to the uneven character of Russian modernization and the lack of cultural homogeneity between urban and rural populaces, childrearing manuals perpetuated cultural hierarchy between medical specialists and mothers, which resulted in the didacticism of Soviet childrearing advice. Childcare manuals constructed the reader not as a peer, but as, essentially, a student, who needed tutoring and disciplining. The "privatization of the modern" ethos that started to characterize family life in the wake of the housing reform of the 1960s reinforced the notion that mothering was a private and highly personalized experience. This emphasis on the individual resulted in the emergence in the 1970s and in the 1980s of the figure of parent-expert and in the reversal of traditional hierarchical expert-parent framework typical of earlier periods.

The Elegant Universe: Stories is a story collection featuring female characters unflinching in their self-appraisal, and wry in their humor, who explore the realities of their heterosexual relationships, particularly the weighty decision whether to have children or not in these dark and terrifying times. Sometimes funny, sometimes sad, the stories collected here explore the various, subtle modes of threat that are the palpable part of the experience of being a woman—not in society, or in the workplace, but primarily inside relationships with men. At the same time, the stories own that love can grow between men and women despite the near and present poison of misogyny. They own the miracle of motherhood while depicting the palpable fragility of new life and the proximity of mothers to unstoppable wreckage and ruin.

AMBIENT LIGHT: ESSAYS ON MARRIAGE, MOTHERHOOD, AND MENTAL HEALTH is a collection of ten personal and lyric essays interspersed with poems that speak to the subject or tone of the essay that follows. These essays examine the narrator’s experiences as mother, wife, and daughter, and explore the manner in which the different roles bleed into one another. The narrator’s impending divorce and the events that coalesce around it shape these essays into a coherent whole. In the spirit of Brenda Miller’s lyric essays, the essays collected in AMBIENT LIGHT: ESSAYS ON MARRIAGE, MOTHERHOOD, AND MENTAL HEALTH, use rich, imagistic language to tell of places and times both reflective and speculative in nature. They speak to the all-too-common dilemma of balancing motherhood with a demanding professional life, while also considering less ordinary issues, such as one child’s mental health challenges and another’s run-ins with the law.