O consumo de ácidos graxos n-3 tem sido associado à proteção contra a obesidade, inflamação e resistência à insulina. Os n-3 são ligantes fracos dos receptores nucleares PPARγ, e pela ativação deste podem exercer suas ações metabólicas e anti-inflamatórias. No presente trabalho, foi investigado se o aumento da disponibilidade dos n-3 geneticamente ou por dieta, via ativação de PPARγ, protege camundongos do desenvolvimento da obesidade, intolerância a glicose e inflamação do tecido adiposo. Foi visto em um modelo com camundongos fat-1 (elevados níveis endógenos de n-3) que dentre as ações dos ácidos graxos n-3, a proteção contra o aumento de peso/adiposidade associada à obesidade, bem como a melhora da intolerância à glicose são dependentes de PPARγ. Além disso, por meio da utilização de camundongos com deleção de PPARγ em hepatócitos os dados desse trabalho mostram que os PPARγ são, ao menos em parte, essenciais ao aumento da oxidação de ácidos graxos induzida pelos n-3 devido à modulação da expressão gênica e protéica de enzimas mitocondriais e peroxissomais. / The intake of n-3 fatty acids have been associated to the protection against obesity, inflammation and insulin resistance. The n-3 fatty acids are ligands of the nuclear receptor PPARγ, and by the activation of this receptor can promote their metabolic and anti-inflammatory effects. Herein, we investigated whether increasing body n-3 fatty acids levels either genetically or by a n-3 enriched diet protects mice from diet-induced obesity, glucose intolerance and adipose tissue inflammation through PPARγ activation. Fat-1 mice were protected from diet-induced obesity, glucose intolerance and adipose tissue inflammation. To better investigate PPARγ involvement in n-3 beneficial actions, mice with genetic deletion of PPARγ specifically in hepatocytes. In spite of the absence of changes in body weight and glucose homeostasis PPARγ deletion in hepatocytes completely abolished the increase in liver fatty acid oxidation and hepatic gene expression of genes associated to mitochondrial and peroxisomal activity.

Au cours des dernières années, l'augmentation de la production aquacole a nécessité un changement dans la composition des aliments pour poissons, pour remplacer la farine (FP) et l’huile de poisson (HP) par des sources végétales plus disponibles. Dans ce contexte, le travail de ma thèse avait pour but d'analyser les effets d’une substitution totale et concomitante de la FP et HP par des ingrédients végétaux dans les aliments distribués pendant tout le cycle de vie de la truite arc-en-ciel, de la première alimentation jusqu’à la reproduction. Ce travail a montré pour la première fois que la truite peut survivre, se développer et avoir une descendance viable, lorsqu’elle est nourrie tout au long de son cycle de vie avec un régime 100% végétal. Un tel remplacement alimentaire a entraîné des changements radicaux dans le profil en acides gras des tissus des femelles. Cependant, nous avons constaté que la truite était capable de synthétiser des acides gras polyinsaturés à longue chaîne n-3 (AGPI-LC n-3) à partir de précurseurs présents dans l'aliment, et de stocker dans les ovules une partie de ces acides gras néosynthétisés dans le foie , permettant ainsi une reproduction efficace. Nous avons également étudié les possibles effets trans-générationnels d’une alimentation 100% végétale des géniteurs, sur la survie et la croissance de la descendance et sur sa réponse à différents régimes aux stades précoces, en nous appuyant sur des analyses du transcriptome des alevins entiers. Aucun effet significatif de l’alimentation maternelle avec des régimes à base de végétaux n’a été observé sur les descendants avant leur première alimentation, à l'exception d'un poids corporel légèrement inférieur (-13%) à celui des descendants de femelles nourries avec un aliment contenant des FP et HP. En revanche, des effets significatifs de l'alimentation maternelle sur le transcriptome des alevins sont apparus après 3 semaines d'alimentation. L'histoire nutritionnelle de la mère a affecté principalement des gènes impliqués dans la croissance/contraction musculaire et dans les métabolismes énergétique et glucidique. Quelle que soit l'origine maternelle, l’alimentation des alevins avec des aliments contenant des ingrédients végétaux conduit à une régulation positive des gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme des AA/protéines et le métabolisme du cholestérol, ainsi qu’à des changements dans l'expression des gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme glucidique. Enfin, les effets à long-terme de régimes à base de matières premières végétales chez la truite arc-en-ciel ont également été étudiés chez les juvéniles (10g) et les poissons «en croissance» (250-350g), en se focalisant principalement sur l’expression des gènes dans l’intestin et le foie. Cette étude à long-terme a mis en évidence chez les juvéniles des effets subtils sur des gènes intestinaux et hépatiques (transcriptome), avec principalement une augmentation de l’expression des gènes impliqués dans les voies de synthèse des AGPI-LC et du cholestérol chez les poissons nourris avec des régimes à base de plantes. Ces changements d’expression ont été maintenus chez les poissons «en croissance». L'expression de gènes impliqués dans le catabolisme des protéines, le métabolisme des glucides et dans le transport intracellulaire a également été modifiée par les régimes à base de plantes chez les juvéniles, mais ces résultats ne sont pas entièrement confirmés chez les poissons «en croissance». L'ensemble des résultats de cette thèse fournissent des informations originales sur l'utilisation de régimes alimentaires avec des taux de remplacement élevés de FP et d’HP pendant l'ensemble du cycle de vie des poissons, y compris les reproducteurs et les stades précoces, car la majorité des études précédentes avaient concerné la phase de grossissement. Des ajustements de la formule alimentaire sont encore nécessaires pour continuer à optimiser les performances de reproduction et la croissance des poissons d’élevage. / In the last years, the increase in aquaculture production has forced a change in fish feed composition, with increasing substitution of fish meal and fish oil by more available plant sources. In this context, the present PhD work aimed at analyzing the effects of different levels of concomitant dietary replacement of fish meal and fish oil by plant ingredients during the whole life cycle of rainbow trout (from first feeding to reproduction). This work showed for the first time that rainbow trout was able to survive, grow and produce viable offsprings, when fed a totally plant-based diet throughout the whole life cycle. Such dietary replacement resulted in drastic changes in tissues fatty acid profile of broodstock females. However, we found that trout was capable to synthetize n-3 long chain- polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) from dietary precursors and to transfer large amounts of these fatty acids in ova, so that an efficient reproduction can occur. We also studied the potential carry over generation effects of feeding broodstock a totally plant-based diet on progeny and their response to different diets at early stages, using molecular approaches, including the study of the whole body transcriptome. Considering the effects on progeny, the present study confirmed the capability of trout to survive and grow on a plant-based diet, but with slight differences in terms of weight. While no effects of maternal dietary background were observed before first feeding, except slightly lower body weight (-13%), significant effects on the transcriptome of whole body alevins appeared after 3 weeks of feeding. These effects of maternal nutritional history were mainly related to muscle growth/contraction and carbohydrate and energy metabolism. Irrespective of the maternal origin of progeny, first feeding diets containing plant ingredients resulted in up-regulation of genes involved in AA/protein and cholesterol metabolism, as well as in changes in the expression of genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Finally, the effects of long-term feeding trout plant-based diets were also studied in juveniles (10g) and ongrowing fish (250-350g), mainly focusing on intestine and liver gene expression. The long term trial in juveniles highlighted subtle effects on both intestinal and hepatic gene expression (transcriptome), mainly related to LC-PUFA and cholesterol biosynthetic pathways, which were enhanced in fish fed the plant based diets. This transcriptional pattern was maintained in ongrowing fish. Genes involved in protein catabolism, carbohydrate metabolism and trafficking were also affected by plant-based diets in juveniles, but these results were not fully confirmed in ongrowing fish. Overall, the results of the present thesis allowed extending the use of diets with high replacement rates of fish meal and fish oil to the whole life cycle of fish, including broodstock and early stages. Adjustments of the feed-formula are still needed to further optimize reproductive and growth performance.

Afin de se maintenir au sein d'un environnement changeant, les individus doivent mettre en place une réponse adéquate. Il est connu que les animaux ont la capacité d'ajuster leur comportement à leur environnement. Cette plasticité comportementale, permet une réponse adaptée et relativement rapide aux variations de l'environnement, maximisant ainsi les chances de survie et de transmission des gènes. Elle met en jeu des processus cérébraux couteux en énergie rendant ces adaptations particulièrement sensibles à des changements alimentaires. Le but de cette thèse a été de mieux comprendre les facteurs qui contraignent ces réponses chez une espèce à laquelle s'applique une forte pression de sélection. Pour ce faire, nous avons étudié les réponses comportementales d'un primate malgache, le microcèbe gris (Microcebus murinus) soumis à des changements dans la quantité ou la qualité des ressources alimentaires disponibles. La première partie de ce travail s'est intéressée aux effets à court terme d'une restriction alimentaire sans malnutrition. Cette partie comprenait deux études. La première s'intéressant aux effets d'une restriction alimentaire à 60% sans malnutrition sur la plasticité comportementale innée via l’étude de l'horloge biologique. Les résultats de cette étude montrent une diminution de la capacité à se resynchroniser après un décalage horaire en lien avec la perte de poids. Ainsi, les individus perdant le plus de poids sont le moins à même de se resynchroniser sur les cycles lumineux après un décalage horaire de 6 heures. La seconde s'intéressait aux effets d'une restriction alimentaire de 40% sans malnutrition sur la plasticité comportementale acquise et montre une diminution de la capacité d'apprentissage des individus restreints après 19 jours de traitement alimentaire sans influence sur la mémoire à long terme. La moindre capacité d’apprentissage chez les individus en restriction calorique est corrélée à la perte de poids, les individus perdant le plus de poids étant les moins performants. Dans une seconde partie j’ai étudié l'effet de modifications qualitatives de l'alimentation à travers une supplémentation à long terme des individus en acides gras polyinsaturés n-3. Cette partie m’a permis de mettre en évidence une amélioration des performances d'apprentissage chez les individus supplémentés après 18 mois de traitement alimentaire accompagnée d'une diminution de l'anxiété et d'une augmentation de la neurogenèse adulte dans trois zones cérébrales.Ces travaux démontrent que les variations nutritionnelles, qu’elles soient quantitatives ou qualitatives sont capables d’influencer les différentes formes de plasticités comportementales et donc les grandes fonctions cérébrales et constituent ainsi un paramètre clé dans l’adaptation et la survie des individus. / In order to survive in a changing environment, individuals have to express an appropriate response. It is known that animals have the ability to adjust their behaviour to their environment. This behavioural plasticity allows a quick and adapted response to environmental variations, maximizing the individual'ssurvival and gene transmission. This plasticity relies on costly brain processes making these adaptations particularly dependent of food availability and maybe quality.This thesis project aimed at better understanding the constraints of these responses in a species under a strong selection pressure. To investigate this problematic, we studied the behavioural responses of a small Malagasy primate, the grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), to both quantitative and qualitative changes in food resources. The first part of this work investigated the effect of a short-term caloric restriction without malnutrition over two studies. In the first one, we studied the effects of a 60% caloric restriction without malnutrition on innate behavioural plasticity via the study of the biological clock. The results show a decrease in the ability to resynchronize on a light/dark cycle following a time-shift. This difficulty to resynchronize was linked to body mass loss, the individuals loosing the more weight being the one unable to resynchronize after the 6-hours time shift. In the second study, we investigated the effect of a 40% caloric restriction without malnutrition on acquired behavioural plasticity. This study show a decrease in learning abilities of the restricted individuals after 19 days of dietary treatment and no influence on long term memory. This decrease in learning abilities was also linked with body mass loss, with the individuals loosing the more weight being the one with the worst success rate during this task. The second part focused on the effects of a qualitative variation in food supply via a long-term supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. This part allowed us to show an increase in learning abilities associated with increased neurogenesis in three brain zones for supplemented animals after 18 month of treatment as well as a decrease of their anxiety level.This thesis work show that both quantitative and qualitative nutritional variations are able to influence different forms of behavioural plasticity and their cerebral basis and are of particular importance in the adaptation and survival of individuals.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Fatty acids (FA) are constituent important of the neuronal phospholipids membranes and they carry out important functions in the development and function of the brain During the last decades changes were observed in the feeding habits of western countries, with an increase of the trans FA and omega-6 (n-6) and detriment of omega-3 fatty acids (n-3) consumption, contributing to increase the oxidative stress (OS) generation and development of neuropsychiatric disorders. The influence of FA supplementation containing n-6 (soybean oil-SO), trans (hydrogenated vegetable fat-HVF) and n-3 (fish oil-FO) on behavioral parameters and OS were studied in an animal model of mania. Rats were orally treated for 8 weeks with suspensions of SO, HVF and FO in place of drinking water, and treated with seven daily administrations of amphetamine (AMPH-mg/kg, ip) or vehicle, in the last week of oral treatment. Locomotor activity, vitamin C (VIT C) levels, protein oxidation and mitochondrial slices in striatum and cortex were evaluated. HVF supplemented rats showed an increase in the locomotor activity, higher levels of carbonyl protein in the cortex, and lower mitochondrial viability in the striatum and cortex, showing harmful effects per se. AMPH treatment increased the locomotor activity of all groups, but this effect showed greater intensity in the rats orally treated with HVF (456%). Similarly, AMPH increased the carbonyl protein levels in striatum (39.5%) and cortex (78%) of the animals orally treated with HVF, while SO and FO prevented it in the cortex. AMPH treatment decreased the mitochondrial viability in cortex and striatum of supplemented rats with all the FA; however the HVF group showed greater damage (46 and 44% of viability in the striatum and cortex, respectively). AMPH reduced the VIT C plasma levels of the HVF and SO groups (22.5 and 22.4% respectively), and this antioxidant parameter has not been changed in the FO treated rats. Here, we suggest that the trans FA contained in the HVF may increase the oxidative damages per se, leaving the rats more vulnerable to AMPH damage. FA n-3 contained in the FO showed subtle protecting effects, which were observed by preservation of the VIT C levels and lower levels of carbonyl protein in the cortex. Further studies should be conducted to evaluate the influence of the trans fatty acids consumption on neuronal activity, and consequently on the susceptibility to psychiatric disorders development among them the bipolar disorder. / Ácidos graxos (AG) são constituintes importantes das membranas fosfolipídicas neuronais e desempenham importantes funções no desenvolvimento e funcionamento do cérebro. Durante as últimas décadas foram observadas mudanças nos hábitos alimentares de países ocidentais, com aumento do consumo de AG trans e ômega-6 (n-6) em detrimento do consumo de ácidos graxos ômega-3 (n-3), cujas conseqüências podem estar relacionadas a um aumento dos danos oxidativos, facilitando o desenvolvimento de doenças neuropsiquiátricas. A influência da suplementação com AG n-6 (óleo de soja-OS), trans (gordura vegetal hidrogenada-GVH) e n-3 (óleo de peixe-OP) sobre parâmetros comportamentais e de estresse oxidativo (EO) foram estudados em um modelo animal de mania. Ratos tratados oralmente com suspensões de OS, GVH e OP, junto à água de beber durante 8 semanas, receberam nos últimos sete dias administrações diárias de anfetamina (ANF-4mg/kg, ip) ou veículo. Atividade locomotora, os níveis de vitamina C (VIT C) plasmático, marcadores de oxidação de proteínas e a viabilidade de fatias do estriado e córtex foram determinados. Animais suplementados com GVH mostraram um aumento da atividade locomotora, maior nível de proteínas carbonil no córtex, e menor viabilidade nas fatias do estriado e córtex, demonstrando efeitos prejudiciais per se. O tratamento com ANF aumentou a atividade locomotora dos animais de todos os grupos experimentais, porém este efeito mostrou maior intensidade nos animais que receberam a suplementação com GVH (456%). Semelhante, a ANF aumentou a carbonilação de proteínas no estriado (39.5%) e córtex (78%) dos animais suplementados com GVH, enquanto OS e OP preveniram o dano causado pela ANF no córtex. O tratamento com ANF diminuiu a viabilidade mitocondrial nos tecidos cerebrais de todos os grupos, entretanto o grupo suplementado com GVH apresentou maiores danos (46 e 44% de viabilidade no estriado e córtex, respectivamente). A ANF diminuiu os níveis de VIT C no plasma dos animais suplementados com OS e GVH (22.5 e 22.4%, respectivamente), e este parâmetro antioxidante não foi alterado nos ratos tratados com OP. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que os ácidos graxos trans presentes na GVH podem aumentar os danos oxidativos per se, deixando os animais mais expostos aos danos da ANF. A suplementação com ácidos graxos n-3 presentes no OP mostraram efeitos protetores sutis, representados pela preservação dos níveis de VIT C plasmático e menor oxidação de proteínas no córtex. Maiores estudos devem ser realizados para determinar a influência do consumo de ácidos graxos trans sobre a atividade neuronal, e conseqüentemente sobre a suscetibilidade para o desenvolvimento de desordens psiquiátricas entre estas, o transtorno bipolar.

SMOFLipid® is a commonly used fat emulsion for parenteral nutrition. We investigated how enrichment of SMOFLipid® with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in a form of second fat emulsion, Omegaven® , changes fatty acid composition of total plasma phospholipids and erythrocyte phospholipids, cytokine concentrations in serum and in supernatant from in vitro whole blood culture stimulated with lipopolasaccharide (LPS) and we evaluated also changes in oxido- reductive balance. Eight patients on long-term home parenteral nutrition recieved both emulsions, SMOFLipid® (6 weeks) and SMOFLipid® +Omegaven® (4 weeks), one by one. We observed no significant differences in common laboratory and clinical parameters between these two types of diet. Enrichment of SMOFLipid® with Omegaven® led to an increase in eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in total plasma phospholipids and there was also an increse in proportion of EPA in erythrocyte phospholipids, while proportion of DHA remained unchanged. These changes were in both phospholipids of plasma and erythrocyte compensated for a decrease in proportion of linoleic and arachidonic acid (n-6 PUFA). There were elevated IL-6 and TNF-α serum concentrations in patients after both diets. There was a decrease in IL-6 production by 36% with SMOFLipid®...

Einleitung: Der diätetische Einsatz von ω-3 Fettsäuren wird für viele Erkrankungen sowohl des Menschen als auch der Tiere mit positiven Effekten verbunden. Auch für Tumorerkrankungen wird, insbesondere bei einem niedrigen Gehalt an Vitamin E, eine positive Wirkung von ω-3 Fettsäuren postuliert. Die Aufnahme der ω-3 Fettsäuren beim Hund aus dem Futter sowie die Inkorporation in das Gewebe wird durch viele verschiedene Faktoren beeinflusst. Um den potenziellen therapeutischen Nutzen einer Supplementierung des Futters mit ω-3 Fettsäuren abschätzen zu können, ist es unerlässlich zu wissen, in welchem Ausmaß und in welcher Geschwindigkeit die Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren aus dem Futter beim Hund erfolgt. Gleichzeitig stellt sich die Frage nach einem geeigneten Indikator, um den Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren zu überprüfen. Zielstellung: In der vorliegenden Dissertation sollten deshalb die folgenden Fragestellungen untersucht werden: a) Kann ein ω-3 Fettsäuresupplement die Fettsäurezusammensetzung im Gewebe genauso effektiv verändern wie ein kommerzielles, ω-3 Fettsäure-reiches Futter? b) Wie gestaltet sich der zeitliche Verlauf der Inkorporation von diätetisch verabreichten ω-3 Fettsäuren in der Erythrozytenmembran (EM) und im Plasma? c) Können die im Plasma zu beobachtenden Veränderungen als Indikator für die Veränderungen in der EM dienen? Material & Methoden: 30 Beagle wurden in 3 Gruppen à 10 Tiere eingeteilt und für 12 Wochen unterschiedlich gefüttert. Die Kontrollgruppe (CONT) erhielt ein kommerzielles Futter, das wenig ω-3 Fettsäuren enthält, eine Versuchsgruppe bekam zusätzlich ein ω-3 Fettsäuren-Konzentrat (ADD) und die zweite Versuchsgruppe erhielt ein kommerzielles Futter mit einem hohen Anteil an ω-3 Fettsäuren (FO). Anschließend wurde ADD für weitere 4 Wochen wie CONT gefüttert. Die Fettsäurezusammensetzung der EM und des Plasmas wurde nach 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 und 12 Wochen und bei ADD zusätzlich auch nach 14 und 16 Wochen per Gaschromatografie analysiert. Der Vitamin E-Gehalt des Plasmas in ADD und CONT wurde per Hochleistungsflüssigkeitsdruckchromatografie bestimmt. Ergebnisse: In unserer Studie erwies sich der Zusatz eines ω-3 Fettsäure-Supplementes zu einem Grundfutter ohne EPA und DHA genau so effektiv wie eine komplette Futterumstellung auf ein kommerzielles ω-3 fettsäurereiches Futter. Dies ist insbesondere für die Therapie von Hunden, die ein Spezialfutter erhalten ein wichtiger Vorteil. Auch können Supplemente einfacher an den jeweiligen individuellen Bedarf angepasst und dosiert werden. Bereits nach einer Woche konnte bei ADD und FO ein signifikanter Anstieg der Gesamt ω-3 Fettsäuren, EPA, und DHA in der EM und im Plasma beobachtet werden. Innerhalb von zwei (ADD) bzw. vier (FO) Wochen war das Plateau des Anstieges der ω-3 Fettsäuren im Plasma erreicht, nach acht Wochen auch in der EM. Das Plateau für DHA wurde im Plasma nach zwei (FO) bzw. vier (ADD) Wochen erreicht, in der EM nach acht Wochen. Das Plateau für EPA wurde im Plasma nach zwei Wochen erreicht, in der EM nach zwei (ADD), bzw. vier (FO) Wochen. Nach der Umstellung von ADD auf CONT-Fütterung ging der Gehalt an EPA im Plasma innerhalb von zwei Wochen auf den Ausgangswert zurück. Der Gehalt an EPA in der EM und der Gehalt an DHA im Plasma und in der EM erreichte das Ausgangsniveau innerhalb der vier Wochen der Washoutperiode nicht wieder. Der Gehalt an Arachidonsäure (AA) und der gesamt ω-6 Fettsäuren in den EM und im Plasma in ADD und FO sank innerhalb des Versuchszeitraumes signifikant, jedoch war die Reduktion nach 12 Wochen noch nicht abgeschlossen. Die Vitamin E Konzentration in ADD und CONT im Plasma zeigte keine signifikanten Änderungen. Schlussfolgerungen: Auf Grund von möglichen individuellen Unterschieden im Fettsäuremuster sollte der Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren immer in Relation zum individuellen Ausgangswert bewertet werden. Unabhängig von der Art der Supplementierung ist ein signifikanter Anstieg von EPA, DHA und der gesamt ω-3 Fettsäuren innerhalb von einer Woche zu erwarten. Hierbei korreliert die Entwicklung im Plasma sehr gut mit der der EM. Die Reduktion von AA und der gesamt ω-6 Fettsäuren erfolgt dagegen über einen wesentlich längeren Zeitraum. Um diese beobachten zu können, ist die Analyse der EM zu bevorzugen.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis ..................................................................................... III 1. Einleitung ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Literatur .......................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Fettsäuren ................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Aufbau und Eigenschaften ....................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Vorkommen und Synthese ....................................................................... 4 2.1.3. Funktion der Fettsäuren im Körper .......................................................... 5 2.1.4. Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei entzündlichen Prozessen .......................... 6 2.2. Tumorerkrankungen .................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorerkrankungen .................................... 8 2.3 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei anderen Erkrankungen ................................. 12 2.4. Diätetische Versorgung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ............................................... 12 2.4.1. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren in das Gewebe ................................... 13 2.4.2. Indikatoren für den Fettsäurestatus des Organismus .............................. 15 2.5. Vitamin E ..................................................................................................... 16 2.5.1. Aufnahme in den Körper ........................................................................... 16 2.5.2. Funktion von Vitamin E ............................................................................. 17 2.5.3. Hypovitaminose E ..................................................................................... 18 2.5.4. Hypervitaminose E .................................................................................... 18 2.5.5. Supplementierung mit Vitamin E bei Erkrankungen .................................. 18 3. Fragestellungen ............................................................................................... 19 4. Publikationen .................................................................................................... 20 4.1. Publikation 1 .................................................................................................. 20 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 1 .......................... 20 4.2. Publikation 2 .................................................................................................. 32 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 2 .......................... 32 5. Diskussion ......................................................................................................... 43 5.1. Würdigung der Versuchsanstellung ................................................................ 43 5.2. Ausgangssituation ........................................................................................... 45 5.3. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren .................................................................... 47 5.4. Auswirkungen auf ω-6 Fettsäuren ................................................................... 49 5.5. Nachteile einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ................................... 50 5.6. Effektivität des ω-3 Fettsäure-Additivs ............................................................ 51 5.7. Einsatz von ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorpatienten ............................................. 54 5.8. Einfluss von Vitamin E ..................................................................................... 56 5.9. Indikatoren für den Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren .......... 58 5.10. Ausblick ......................................................................................................... 59 6. Schlussfolgerungen ............................................................................................ 60 7. Zusammenfassung ............................................................................................. 61 8. Summary ............................................................................................................ 63 9. Literaturverzeichnis ............................................................................................ 65 Danksagung ........................................................................................................... 83 / Introduction: Dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids is associated with positive effects on many diseases in humans and animals. A positive effect of n-3 fatty acids on cancer is discussed especially in combination with a low Vitamin E content. Bioavailability from food and incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into tissues is influenced by many different factors. In order to estimate the potential therapeutical use of n-3 fatty acid supplementation in dogs it is nessecary to know the extend and speed of the incorporation of dietary n-3 fatty acids into tissues. There is also need for a reliable indicator to monitor the success of n-3 fatty acid supplementation. Objective: We therefore sought to answer the following questions: a) Is a n-3 fatty acid additive as effective in changing tissue fatty acid profiles as a commercial n-3 fatty acid diet? b) How are n-3 fatty acids incorporated into erythrocyte membranes (EM) and plasma over time? c) Are plasma fatty acid profiles a suitable indicator for EM fatty acid profiles? Material & Methods: 30 Beagle dogs were divided into 3 groups with 10 dogs per group and fed different diets for 12 weeks. One group got a commercial diet with a low n-3 fatty acid content (CONT). One group got the CONT diet with an added n-3 fatty acid concentrate (ADD) and one group got a commercial diet rich in n-3 fatty acids. After the 12 week period ADD was fed an additional four weeks as CONT to observe washout effects. Fatty acid profiles of plasma and EM were analysed at week 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 12 and for ADD also at week 14 and 16 per gas chromatography. Vitamin E content was analysed in Plasma of ADD and CONT via high pressure liquid chromatography. Results: In our study the use of a n-3 fatty acid additive was as effective in changing tissue fatty acid profiles as a commercial diet rich in n-3 fatty acids. Especially for dogs already recieving specialized diets, this is an important advantage. Additives are also much easier to customise and dose according to individual needs. A significant increase of total n-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA was seen in EM and in plasma after one week both in ADD and FO. For total n-3 fatty acids the plateau was reached in plasma after two (ADD) and four (FO) weeks and after eight weeks in EM. DHA reached its plateau in plasma after two (FO) and four (ADD) weeks and after eight weeks in EM. For EPA the plateau was reached after two weeks in plasma and in EM after two (ADD) and four (FO) weeks. During the washout period in ADD EPA reached its baseline levels after two weeks in plasma but not within four weeks in EM. Total n-3 fatty acids and DHA in both plasma and EM also did not return to baseline levels within the four weeks of the washout period. Arachidonic acid (AA) and total n-6 fatty acids were significantly reduced in both ADD and FO during the trial, but their decline was not completed within the 12 weeks of the trial period. Vitamin E content in ADD and CONT showed no significant changes. Conclusion: Due to possible individual differences in fatty acid profiles success of dietary n-3 fatty acid supplementation should always be measured in relation to individual fatty acid profiles before the start of dietary supplementation. Both the additive and the commercial n-3 fatty acid diet led to an increase in EPA, DHA and total n-3 fatty acids within one week. This could be seen clearly in both plasma and EM. Changes in EM also correlated well with changes in plasma. For AA and total n-6 Fatty acids it took much longer to decline. In order to monitor this decline analysis of EM should be preferred.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis ..................................................................................... III 1. Einleitung ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Literatur .......................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Fettsäuren ................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Aufbau und Eigenschaften ....................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Vorkommen und Synthese ....................................................................... 4 2.1.3. Funktion der Fettsäuren im Körper .......................................................... 5 2.1.4. Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei entzündlichen Prozessen .......................... 6 2.2. Tumorerkrankungen .................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorerkrankungen .................................... 8 2.3 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei anderen Erkrankungen ................................. 12 2.4. Diätetische Versorgung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ............................................... 12 2.4.1. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren in das Gewebe ................................... 13 2.4.2. Indikatoren für den Fettsäurestatus des Organismus .............................. 15 2.5. Vitamin E ..................................................................................................... 16 2.5.1. Aufnahme in den Körper ........................................................................... 16 2.5.2. Funktion von Vitamin E ............................................................................. 17 2.5.3. Hypovitaminose E ..................................................................................... 18 2.5.4. Hypervitaminose E .................................................................................... 18 2.5.5. Supplementierung mit Vitamin E bei Erkrankungen .................................. 18 3. Fragestellungen ............................................................................................... 19 4. Publikationen .................................................................................................... 20 4.1. Publikation 1 .................................................................................................. 20 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 1 .......................... 20 4.2. Publikation 2 .................................................................................................. 32 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 2 .......................... 32 5. Diskussion ......................................................................................................... 43 5.1. Würdigung der Versuchsanstellung ................................................................ 43 5.2. Ausgangssituation ........................................................................................... 45 5.3. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren .................................................................... 47 5.4. Auswirkungen auf ω-6 Fettsäuren ................................................................... 49 5.5. Nachteile einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ................................... 50 5.6. Effektivität des ω-3 Fettsäure-Additivs ............................................................ 51 5.7. Einsatz von ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorpatienten ............................................. 54 5.8. Einfluss von Vitamin E ..................................................................................... 56 5.9. Indikatoren für den Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren .......... 58 5.10. Ausblick ......................................................................................................... 59 6. Schlussfolgerungen ............................................................................................ 60 7. Zusammenfassung ............................................................................................. 61 8. Summary ............................................................................................................ 63 9. Literaturverzeichnis ............................................................................................ 65 Danksagung ........................................................................................................... 83

Consumer awareness of the link between dietary fats and health outcomes has led to increased demand for food products enriched with bioactive fatty acids (FA). Ruminant-derived fats, such as dairy fats, contribute significantly to the American diet and contain many unique beneficial FA, such as short- and medium-chain FA, n-3 FA, conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), vaccenic acid (VA), as well as odd-and branched-chain FA (OBCFA). Increasing these FA in dairy products by altering farm management practices, such as breed, lactation stage, and nutrition, may improve human health without a change to the diet. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to evaluate on-farm strategies to increase the content of bioactive FA in bovine milk. The first objective was to enrich milk fat with bioactive FA via supplementation with echium oil, a terrestrial oil rich in n-3 FA. Treatments were 1.5% and 3.0% dry matter as lipid encapsulated echium oil (EEO) which were compared to a control (no EEO). Milk fat contents of n-3 FA increased with EEO supplementation but the transfer of n-3 FA from EEO into milk fat was rather low (< 5%). In a subsequent trial, ruminal protection of EEO and post-ruminal release of EEO-derived FA was examined. EEO-derived FA were preferentially incorporated into plasma lipid fractions unavailable to the mammary gland. Moreover, fecal excretion of EEO-derived FA ranged from 7-14% of intake, and VA and CLA, the biohydrogenation and metabolism products of n-3 FA, increased in milk and feces with EEO supplementation. Therefore, lipid-encapsulation provided inadequate digestibility and low transfer efficiency of n-3 FA into milk. The second objective was to compare the bacterial community structure and unique bioactive FA in bacterial membranes and milk fat between Holstein (HO), Jersey (JE), and HO x JE crossbreeds (CB) across a lactation. Lactation stage had a prominent effect on rumen bacterial taxa, with Firmicutes being most abundant during early lactation. The FA composition of bacterial cells was affected by both lactation stage and genetics, and OBCFA in bacterial cells were positively correlated with several bacteria of the Firmicutes phylum. HO and CB exhibited greater contents of various bioactive FA in milk than JE. The highest content of all bioactive FA occurred at early lactation, while OBCFA were highest at late lactation. The third objective was to determine the effects of grazing a monoculture vs. a diverse pasture on rumen bacterial and protozoal taxa, their membrane FA composition, and milk FA. Microbial communities shifted in response to grazing regime accompanied with changes in their membrane FA profiles. Rumen microbiota from cows grazing a diverse pasture had higher contents of n-3 FA and VA, but lower contents of OBCFA. Microbial membrane FA correlated with microbial taxa, the contents of ALA and n-3 FA were positively correlated with the bacterial genus Butyrivibrio and the protozoal genus Eudioplodinium. Milk contents of CLA and n-3 FA increased when cows grazed a diverse pasture, while grazing a monoculture led to greater milk contents of OBCFA. In conclusion, grazing cows on a diverse pasture, when compared to genetic effects and lipid supplementation, was the most efficacious strategy to increase the content of bioactive FA in milk.

O exercício físico intenso está associado à mudanças na quantidade, na função e na morte de neutrófilos. Tem sido proposto que a suplementação com óleo de peixe minimiza os efeitos imunossupressivos do exercício físico e que a fosfatidilcolina também poderia exercer importantes efeitos sobre a função de leucócitos. O objetivo do estudo foi o de investigar os efeitos da meia maratona e da suplementação com lecitina de soja ou óleos de peixe ricos em EPA ou DHA na apoptose de neutrófilos de atletas amadores. Quarenta e seis atletas amadores, foram avaliados antes e após duas competições de meia maratona. Na primeira meia maratona, os atletas não foram suplementados. As coletas de sangue dos atletas foram realizadas nas seguintes condições: Em repouso e imediatamente após a competição. No primeiro dia, após a primeira meia maratona, iniciou-se a suplementação. Os indivíduos foram suplementados diariamente com 3g de óleo de peixe ou lecitina de soja, por 60 dias, e divididos em 3 grupos: 1) Lecitina, 2) DHA e 3) EPA. Os atletas foram reavaliados 8 semanas após o início da suplementação. Já na segunda meia maratona, com todos os atletas suplementados, as coletas de sangue foram realizadas nas mesmas condições da primeira corrida. Neste estudo avaliamos os receptores da apoptose de neutrófilos (Fas e TRAIL), as moléculas de adesão (L-selectina e ICAM-1), a fragmentação de DNA e a externalização de fosfatidilserina. Além disso, foi avaliada a concentração plasmática das citocinas TNF-alfa, IL-8, IL-6, IL-4, IL-10 e IL-1beta. As enzimas creatina quinase e lactato desidrogenase, a concentração de mioglobina, proteína C reativa e o número de leucócitos e neutrófilos também foi determinada. A meia maratona aumentou a atividade das enzimas CK e LDH e a concentração de mioglobina em todos os grupos estudados, sendo que a suplementação não apresentou nenhum efeito sobre estes parâmetros. Já o número de neutrófilos e leucócitos, aumentaram após a meia maratona em todos os grupos, e a suplementação provocou este aumento somente nos grupos EPA e Lecitina. Em neutrófilos de atletas, a meia maratona diminuiu a expressão dos receptores Fas e TRAIL e das móleculas de adesão ICAM-1 e L-selectina em todos os grupos, por outro lado, aumentou a fragmentação de DNA (somente no grupo DHA) e a externalização de FS (DHA, EPA e Lectina). A meia maratona também elevou a concentração das citocinas IL-8, IL-6 e IL-10 em todos os grupos. Já a suplementação (DHA, EPA ou lecitina de soja) diminuiu a fragmentação de DNA e a expressão do receptor Fas em neutrófilos. Além disso, aumentou a expressão de TRAIL, ICAM-1, L-selectina e a externalização de fosfatidilserina. Em relação a concentração plasmática de citocinas a suplementação reduziu a concentração de TNF-alfa e aumentou a de IL-10 em todos os grupos. Enquanto que, a concentração de IL-4 aumentou somente nos grupos DHA e EPA. Concluímos que a suplementação com lecitina de soja apresenta efeitos semelhantes aos dos óleos de peixe ricos em EPA ou DHA sobre a função de leucócitos em atletas amadores. / Intense physical exercise is associated with changes in the number, function and death of neutrophils. It has been proposed that supplementation with fish oil rich minimizes the immunosuppressive effects induced by intense physical exercise and phosphatidylcholine could also have significant effects on leukocytes function. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a half-marathon and fish oil suplemmentation rich in EPA or DHA or soy lecithin suplemmentation on neutrophils apoptosis of amateur athletes. Forty-six recreational athletes were evaluated before and after two half marathons. In the first competition the athletes did not receive supplementation. Blood samples were collected in the following conditions: In rest and immediately after competition. On the first day, after the first half-marathon, supplementation began. The subjects were supplemented with 3 g of fish oil or soy lecithin daily for 60 days and divided into 3 groups: 1) Lecithin 2) DHA 3) EPA. The athletes were assessed 8 weeks after the start of supplementation. In the second half-marathon, with all the supplemented athletes, blood samples were collected under the same conditions of the first competition. In this study were evaluated the receptors of neutrophils apoptosis (Fas and TRAIL), adhesion molecules (L-selectin and ICAM-1), DNA fragmentation and phosphatidylserine externalization. Moreover, the plasma concentration of TNF-alpha, IL-8, IL-6, IL-4, IL-10 and IL-1beta cytokines was evaluated. The enzymatic activity of creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, plasma concentration of myoglobin, and C-reactive protein and blood counts was also determined. The half-marathon increased the enzymatic activity of CK and LDH and the myoglobin concentration in all groups studied, and the supplementation had no effect on these parameters. The number of neutrophils and leucocytes increased in all groups after half marathon, and the supplementation caused this increase only in the EPA and Lecithin groups. In athletes neutrophils, the half-marathon decreased the expression of Fas and TRAIL receptors and of ICAM-1 and L-selectin adhesion molecules. On the other hand, it increased DNA fragmentation (only in the DHA group) and phosphatidylserine externalization (DHA, EPA and Lecithin groups). The half-marathon also increased concentrations of IL-8, IL-6 and IL-10 cytokines in all groups. The Supplementation (DHA or EPA or soy lecithin) decreased DNA fragmentation and Fas receptor expression in neutrophils. Moreover, increased expression of TRAIL, ICAM-1, L-selectin and phosphatidylserine externalization. In relation to cytokines plasma concentration the supplementation decreased TNF-alfa and increased the concentration of IL-10 in all groups. Whereas, IL-4 concentration increased only DHA and EPA groups. In conclusion, supplementation with soy lecithin has similar effects to the fish oils rich in EPA or DHA on leukocyte function amateur athletes.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase integral in regulating cell growth, survival, and migration. EGFR signaling, which is dependent on localization of the receptor within lipid rafts, is often hijacked during colon tumorigenesis. Previous work has found that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is protective against colon cancer. This fatty acid is proposed to function in part by perturbing lipid rafts and thereby altering cell signaling. The overall objective of this work was to determine whether DHA alters EGFR function and signaling. We assessed EGFR localization and ligand-induced phosphorylation in YAMC cells treated with fatty acids. We found that DHA reduced the localization of EGFR to lipid rafts. Concomitant with altering receptor localization, DHA was found to increase EGFR phosphorylation. However, DHA paradoxically suppressed EGFR signal transduction. We found that DHA uniquely altered EGFR activity, and other long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid did not exert the same effect. We additionally observed similar effects on EGFR activation and signaling by feeding mice a diet enriched in fish oil (high in DHA), and this was attendant with reduced colon tumorigenesis. We next probed the mechanism by which DHA enhances EGFR phosphorylation. We found that DHA facilitates receptor dimerization to increase phosphorylation. We additionally identified Ras activation as the site of perturbation of signal transduction. DHA suppressed signal transduction by both changing the localization of EGFR within the plasma membrane and increasing receptor endocytosis and degradation. Lastly, we extended our observations into a wounding model. Although DHA uniquely altered ligand-stimulated EGFR activity, both DHA and EPA altered EGFR transactivation and signaling upon injury. This culminated in reduced wound healing in DHA and EPA treated cells. In an animal model, we found that diets enriched in either DHA or EPA altered EGFR signaling in the colonocytes of wounded animals. Overall, we found that DHA modifies EGFR signaling, which can be beneficial or detrimental for health depending on the disease state of an individual. These data help elucidate a mechanism by which DHA protects against colon cancer, as well as indicating a potential downside of n-3 PUFA therapy.

Les aliments riches en acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) à longue chaîne (LC) de la série n-3 sont recommandés pour leurs effets bénéfiques sur la santé humaine et en particulier dans la prevention du développement des maladies métaboliques. Or, la biodisponibilité de ces AGPI et leur impact métabolique pourraient être modulés par la nature chimique des molécules qui les véhiculent dans les aliments (triacylglycérols, TG ou phospholipides, PL). De plus, ces AGPI sont sensibles à la peroxydation lipidique. S'ils ne sont pas protégés de l'oxydation, ils peuvent former des espèces réactives toxiques comme le 4-hydroxy-hexénal (4-HHE). Dans ce contexte, le but de notre étude a été d'évaluer l'impact de l'enrichissement de régimes hyperlipidiques en AGPI n-3 (i) portés par des TG ou des PL et (ii) sous forme non-oxydée ou oxydée, sur l'inflammation et le stress oxydant métaboliques et d'en comprendre certains mécanismes liés à l'absorption intestinale et la réactivité du 4-HHE. D'une part, notre étude a confirmé que la consommation d'AGPI-LC n-3 empêche l'induction du stress oxydant et de l'inflammation lors d'un régime hyperlipidique chez la souris. Cependant, par rapport aux TG, les PL vecteurs d'AGPI n-3 permettent de réduire la taille des adipocytes et de stimuler le système antioxydant. D'autre part, notre étude a montré que la consommation d'AGPI n-3 oxydés de manière modérée aboutit à une élévation des concentrations plasmatiques de 4-HHE et des marqueurs inflammatoires. De plus, une activation des voies inflammatoires ainsi que du stress du réticulum endoplasmique ont été détectées au niveau de l'intestin grêle. Nos résultats in vivo et in vitro sur cellules intestinales Caco-2/TC7 indiquent que cela peut être dû en partie à une absorption au niveau intestinal du 4-HHE, produit d'oxydations des AGPI n-3. Dans le contexte du développement des aliments contenant des AGPI-LC n-3, nos résultats contribuent à identifier les structures vectrices de ces acides gras les plus efficaces du point de vue métabolique. En santé publique et en pratique clinique, nos résultats constituent une nouvelle base de réflexion pour la mise en place de bonnes pratiques de production et de conservation des aliments et des compléments nutritionnels enrichis en AGPI-LC n-3 pour éviter leur oxydation et ses possibles effets délétères.