Environmentally Sensitive Areas constitute the principal policy instrument for rewarding farmers as providers of environmental goods and services in the EU. This study examines two Scottish ESAs and considers whether the environmental benefits resulting exceed the costs and whether money is being targeted in a way which maximises the benefits. The study examines two main aspects of the public's perceptions of the benefits of the ESA policy: • the public's preferences for different landscape and conservation features within the ESA, and • the public's monetary valuation of the benefits of the scheme (using the Contingent Valuation Method). The individual features which are eligible for grant support under the ESA scheme are generally in accord with public preferences. It is clear from this study that, in principle, a high level of support for the ESA scheme exists amongst members of the public in the Loch Lomond and Stewartry areas. However, in practice, the way that the scheme has operated in the past has focused on an unduly narrow range of environmental services. Furthermore, those features commanding the greatest input of expenditure generate low levels of benefit to the public. If the primary aim were to maximise the monetary value of environmental gains resulting from a given level of expenditure, then an adjustment in the allocation of funding between different policy elements would seem to offer considerable potential for increasing the resulting consumer benefits. Furthermore, the current levels of expenditure on the policy are well below the mean willingness to pay for the policy stated by residents and visitors in the study sites.

The determination of long-term goals for climate policy, or of near-term mitigation effort, requires a shared conception among nations of what is at stake. Unfortunately, because of different attitudes to risk, problems of valuing non-market effects, and disagreements about aggregation across rich and poor nations, no single benefit measure is possible that can provide commonly accepted basis for judgment. In response to this circumstance, a portfolio of estimates is recommended, including global variables that can be represented in probabilistic terms, regional impacts expressed in natural units, and integrated monetary valuation. Development of such a portfolio is a research task, and the needed program of work suggested. / Abstract in HTML and technical report in PDF available on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change website (http://mit.edu/globalchange/www/). / Results cited from the MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change were developed with the support of the US Department of Energy, Office of Biological and Environmental Research [BER] (DE-FG02-94ER61937) the US Environmental Protection Agency (X-827703-01-0), the Electric Power Research Institute, and by a consortium of industry and foundation sponsors.

A valoração econômica de árvores presentes em vias públicas é uma forma de expressar a importância desses seres vivos, baseado nos inúmeros benefícios advindos deles. Diversos são os métodos para a obtenção do valor econômico, sendo os métodos de fórmula difundidos mundialmente e utilizados em larga escala. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo evoluir o método de fórmula proposto por Silva Filho et al. (2002), com o propósito de representar os serviços ecossistêmicos fornecidos pela vegetação urbana. Por meio de inventário georreferenciado, foram coletadas informações das árvores existentes em duas áreas: bairro Cambuí (Campinas/SP) e bacia do Córrego do Sapateiro (São Paulo/SP). Realizou-se uma análise teórica dos métodos de fórmula mais consagrados mundialmente (CTLA, Norma Granada, Burnley, Helliwell e STEM), demonstrando haver uma base regular entre eles. Posteriormente, houve a adequação e/ou inserção de fatores considerados importantes na fórmula brasileira: uma variável relacionada à ocorrência natural das espécies, classificando-as em nativas do Brasil, nativas regionais, exóticas e invasoras; também adicionou-se o custo de manutenção aos outros custos já presentes na fórmula (muda e plantio); e por último, houve a junção do índice de importância (li) com o índice de importância relativo (lir) a fim de expressar a raridade dos indivíduos presentes nos locais estudados. Essas melhorias destacaram os exemplares arbóreos de origem nativa (Brasil e regional), de grande porte e pouco frequente nas duas regiões analisadas. O valor monetário das árvores inventariadas no bairro Cambuí totalizou um valor de R$ 60.488.360,33, tendo cada indivíduo um valor médio de R$ 34.863,61 e na bacia do Córrego do Sapateiro o valor total foi de R$ 75.036.501,20, com uma média de valor de R$ 69.671,77 por exemplar. Outro valor obtido foi o valor por m2 de vegetação arbórea urbana, sendo R$ 156,12/m2 para o bairro Cambuí e R$ 284,64/m2 para a bacia do Córrego do Sapateiro. O preço para inserção de uma árvore em uma via pública é maior para a cidade de São Paulo, principal explicação para a diferença entre os valores monetários das duas áreas. Por fim, a valoração monetária de árvores em meio urbano é um mecanismo eficaz na sensibilização da população sobre os benefícios por elas proporcionados e no auxílio do planejamento e manutenção da arborização urbana. / The economic value of trees present on public roads is a way to express the importance of these living beings, based on the numerous benefits from them. There are several methods for obtaining the economic value, but the formulas are diffused worldwide and methods used in wide scale. This study aimed to enhance the method of formula proposed by Silva Filho et al. (2002), with the purpose of representing the ecosystem services provided by urban vegetation. Through georeferenced inventory, information of trees were collected in two areas: Cambuí neighborhood (Campinas/SP) and in the watershed Córrego do Sapareiro (São Paulo/SP). We performed a theoretical analysis of the methods of formula most established worldwide (CTLA, Norma Granada, Burnley, Helliwell and STEM), demonstrating there a regular basis between them. Later, there was the adequacy and/or insertion of factors considered important in the Brazilian formula: a variable related to the natural occurrence of the species, classifying them into native Brazil, native regional, exotic and invasive; also added maintenance cost to other costs already present in formula (young tree and planting); and lastly, there was the junction of the importance index (li) with the relative importance index (lir) to express the rarity of trees in the present study areas. These improvements highlighted the arboreal specimens of native origin (Brazil and regional), large and rare trees in both regions analyzed. The monetary value of the inventoried trees in Cambuí neighborhood achieved an amount of R$ 60.488.360,33, each individual tree an average value of R$ 34.863,61 and in the Córrego do Sapateiro, the total amount of R$ 75.036.501,20, with an average value of R$ 69.671,77 per tree. Another value was the value per square meter of urban vegetation, being R$ 156,12/m2 for the Cambuí neighborhood and R$ 284,64/m2 for the watershed Córrego do Sapateiro. The price for implantation of a tree on a public road is higher for the city of São Paulo, the main explanation for the difference between the monetary values of the two areas. Finally, the monetary valuation of trees in urban areas is an effective mechanism in raising public awareness about the benefits provided by them and for the planning and maintenance of urban trees.

Three step process: Each valuation process can - independent of its economic or ecological focus - be subdivided into three stages: The selection of the target object, the determination of the effects to be analyzed and, last but not least, the monetary or non-monetary valuation of these effects. Already during the first two stages an implicit valuation through the selection processes for the target object and the effects takes place. The actual explicit valuation that is predominantly discussed in the literature is confined to the last stage. For the whole valuation process the three stages have to be clearly separated in order to be able to unequivocally attribute the influences on the results to the single stages. Implementation: Each valuation process is only as good as the information and decision instruments that are used in the determination of its results. Special features of eco-related consequences: The structure of a valuation process of eco-related consequences corresponds to the one for economic, monetary valuable consequences. The scientific discussion needs an objective analysis of the three stages and of the information and decision processes that implement the valuation.

The motivation for this study arose from the dual observation that there are very few estimates of the local costs of climate change in developing countries and that the few studies that do exist rarely take into account the non-market value of ecosystem services. Using a case study of a coastal lagoon ecosystem in Uruguay, I explore practical reasons for why this might be the case. Informational difficulties related to identifying local climate trends and the identification of ecosystem services as well as the relevance and feasibility of monetary valuation methodologies are discussed using specific examples. Three valuation methodologies are implemented to estimate the monetary values of climate change impacts on specific ecosystem services. The results suggest that climate change is affecting the economic value of the coastal lagoon ecosystem. Implications for local management and lessons learned from the case study are discussed.

A valoração econômica de árvores presentes em vias públicas é uma forma de expressar a importância desses seres vivos, baseado nos inúmeros benefícios advindos deles. Diversos são os métodos para a obtenção do valor econômico, sendo os métodos de fórmula difundidos mundialmente e utilizados em larga escala. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo evoluir o método de fórmula proposto por Silva Filho et al. (2002), com o propósito de representar os serviços ecossistêmicos fornecidos pela vegetação urbana. Por meio de inventário georreferenciado, foram coletadas informações das árvores existentes em duas áreas: bairro Cambuí (Campinas/SP) e bacia do Córrego do Sapateiro (São Paulo/SP). Realizou-se uma análise teórica dos métodos de fórmula mais consagrados mundialmente (CTLA, Norma Granada, Burnley, Helliwell e STEM), demonstrando haver uma base regular entre eles. Posteriormente, houve a adequação e/ou inserção de fatores considerados importantes na fórmula brasileira: uma variável relacionada à ocorrência natural das espécies, classificando-as em nativas do Brasil, nativas regionais, exóticas e invasoras; também adicionou-se o custo de manutenção aos outros custos já presentes na fórmula (muda e plantio); e por último, houve a junção do índice de importância (li) com o índice de importância relativo (lir) a fim de expressar a raridade dos indivíduos presentes nos locais estudados. Essas melhorias destacaram os exemplares arbóreos de origem nativa (Brasil e regional), de grande porte e pouco frequente nas duas regiões analisadas. O valor monetário das árvores inventariadas no bairro Cambuí totalizou um valor de R$ 60.488.360,33, tendo cada indivíduo um valor médio de R$ 34.863,61 e na bacia do Córrego do Sapateiro o valor total foi de R$ 75.036.501,20, com uma média de valor de R$ 69.671,77 por exemplar. Outro valor obtido foi o valor por m2 de vegetação arbórea urbana, sendo R$ 156,12/m2 para o bairro Cambuí e R$ 284,64/m2 para a bacia do Córrego do Sapateiro. O preço para inserção de uma árvore em uma via pública é maior para a cidade de São Paulo, principal explicação para a diferença entre os valores monetários das duas áreas. Por fim, a valoração monetária de árvores em meio urbano é um mecanismo eficaz na sensibilização da população sobre os benefícios por elas proporcionados e no auxílio do planejamento e manutenção da arborização urbana. / The economic value of trees present on public roads is a way to express the importance of these living beings, based on the numerous benefits from them. There are several methods for obtaining the economic value, but the formulas are diffused worldwide and methods used in wide scale. This study aimed to enhance the method of formula proposed by Silva Filho et al. (2002), with the purpose of representing the ecosystem services provided by urban vegetation. Through georeferenced inventory, information of trees were collected in two areas: Cambuí neighborhood (Campinas/SP) and in the watershed Córrego do Sapareiro (São Paulo/SP). We performed a theoretical analysis of the methods of formula most established worldwide (CTLA, Norma Granada, Burnley, Helliwell and STEM), demonstrating there a regular basis between them. Later, there was the adequacy and/or insertion of factors considered important in the Brazilian formula: a variable related to the natural occurrence of the species, classifying them into native Brazil, native regional, exotic and invasive; also added maintenance cost to other costs already present in formula (young tree and planting); and lastly, there was the junction of the importance index (li) with the relative importance index (lir) to express the rarity of trees in the present study areas. These improvements highlighted the arboreal specimens of native origin (Brazil and regional), large and rare trees in both regions analyzed. The monetary value of the inventoried trees in Cambuí neighborhood achieved an amount of R$ 60.488.360,33, each individual tree an average value of R$ 34.863,61 and in the Córrego do Sapateiro, the total amount of R$ 75.036.501,20, with an average value of R$ 69.671,77 per tree. Another value was the value per square meter of urban vegetation, being R$ 156,12/m2 for the Cambuí neighborhood and R$ 284,64/m2 for the watershed Córrego do Sapateiro. The price for implantation of a tree on a public road is higher for the city of São Paulo, the main explanation for the difference between the monetary values of the two areas. Finally, the monetary valuation of trees in urban areas is an effective mechanism in raising public awareness about the benefits provided by them and for the planning and maintenance of urban trees.

This dissertation explores the central role of numbers in environmental policy and discourse, with a particular focus on the "economic turn" in nature conservation. The aim has been to understand and explain why, despite the parallel increase in environmental problems and in quantitative information about the environment, the faith in and focus on numbers to do something about the problems seem as strong as ever. The dissertation draws on discourse analysis and insights from historical and sociological studies about numbers and quantification and combines it within a critical realist methodology. The main empirical case analysed is the UN-backed study of "The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity" (TEEB), supplemented by an historical review of the development of environmental statistics since the 1970s and a review of the developments within conservation science with respect to the role of numbers. The historical review demonstrates a change from biophysical numbers to new measures of equivalence (e.g. CO2-equivalents), paralleling the move from central planning and administrative rationality to neoliberalism and market rationality. While monetary valuation has been much criticised in the environmental politics literature for leading to the commercialisation of nature, this study shows a more nuanced picture: the role of monetary valuation has rather been to "bridge" the transition from administrative rationality to market rationality. It is the newly developed measures of equivalence which allow setting up new markets for financial instruments and compensation schemes for environmental damage. In the case of TEEB, monetary valuation and its related arguments of efficiency, rational decision-making etc., are first and foremost rhetorical since the main recommendations (economic incentives and markets) are taken for granted. The centrality of numbers in current environmental policy discourse is explained by a combination of structural conditions, the search for business opportunities and actors' perceptions of money as the only possible language of communication. Some structural conditions are of a more general kind specific for modernity, while others are specific for the neoliberal era. A main problem with the number focus in environmental policy, is that it allows to not address the underlying drivers of the problems, and hence strengthens the "actualist" perception of reality. The study concludes that numbers have potential as evidence of environmental problems. However, change does not happen by the numbers themselves (contra mainstream economics), but must achieve political support. Further research is needed to understand better how numerical information can be combined with approaches which move beyond actualism, instrumentalism and relativism.

Le recours de plus en plus fréquent à l’évaluation monétaire des impacts sanitaires permet de les intégrer aux processus de décision, souvent fondés sur des critères essentiellement économiques, et de prendre en compte les préférences des personnes concernées. Il conduit à s’interroger sur la fiabilité des méthodes et sur leur adaptation au contexte de la décision. Ce travail se propose de déterminer la robustesse des valeurs monétaires des impacts sanitaires estimées par évaluation contingente en traitant de la question suivante : la cause de l’impact sanitaire influence son évaluation ? La théorie économique précise d’une part que l’évaluation d’un impact sanitaire ne devrait dépendre que de ses caractéristiques et non de ses causes, et d’autre part, qu’il faut fournir l’ensemble des informations nécessaires à l’évaluation. En pratique, les évaluations contingentes énoncent parfois des causes, avec des résultats variables. Une évaluation contingente a été conduite pour analyser l’influence des causes de la bronchite pulmonaire chronique obstructive sur son évaluation, en comparant quatre versions du questionnaire : la cause n'est pas citée ; la cause est principalement imputable au tabac et à la pollution de l’air ; la cause n'est que la pollution de l’air ; ou que le tabac. Les résultats montrent que la mention des causes possibles et crédibles augmente l’acceptabilité du questionnaire. Lors de la détermination du consentement à payer, les divers contextes ont moins d’influence que les caractéristiques des personnes interrogées, en particulier leur santé et l’environnement (alimentation saine, activité physique, pollution du lieu de vie). Par conséquent, fournir des informations sur les causes de l’impact sanitaire évalué permettrait d’améliorer la fiabilité de l’évaluation. Il faut noter que les incertitudes restent importantes, notamment parce que l’exercice reste inusité en France où la Sécurité Sociale couvre en grande partie les dépenses de santé. / Monetary valuation of health impacts is increasingly used to support decision process, often relying mainly on economic criteria, and to take into account preferences of concerned people. This use leads to questioning the reliability of the methods and their adaptation to the context of decisions support. This work aims at determining the robustness of monetary values of health impacts estimated by contingent valuation via the following question: does the cause of the assessed health impact influence its monetary value? Economic theory outlines that, on the one hand monetary value of an health impact should depend on its characteristics only and not on its causes, on the other hand all information useful to the valuation should be provided. In practice, contingent valuations sometimes state the causes, with inconsistent results. A contingent valuation was conducted to analyze the effect of cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, with four versions of the questionnaire: the cause is not indicated, the causes are said to be mainly smoking and air pollution, the cause is said to be air pollution only, and smoking only. Results show that stipulating the possible causes increases the acceptability of the questionnaire. The willingness to pay depends less on the causes but more on the personal characteristics of the respondents, especially their health and environment (healthy diet, sport practice, pollution in living area). To conclude, providing information about the causes of the valued health impact would increase the reliability of the assessment. Uncertainties remain high in particular as this valuation stays unusual in France where the National Health Service covers most of health expenses.

Three step process: Each valuation process can - independent of its economic or ecological focus - be subdivided into three stages: The selection of the target object, the determination of the effects to be analyzed and, last but not least, the monetary or non-monetary valuation of these effects. Already during the first two stages an implicit valuation through the selection processes for the target object and the effects takes place. The actual explicit valuation that is predominantly discussed in the literature is confined to the last stage. For the whole valuation process the three stages have to be clearly separated in order to be able to unequivocally attribute the influences on the results to the single stages. Implementation: Each valuation process is only as good as the information and decision instruments that are used in the determination of its results. Special features of eco-related consequences: The structure of a valuation process of eco-related consequences corresponds to the one for economic, monetary valuable consequences. The scientific discussion needs an objective analysis of the three stages and of the information and decision processes that implement the valuation.

[pt] A degradação de paisagens em diferentes escalas espaciais e temporais têm ameaçado a vida humana e não humana na Terra. O conceito dos serviços ecossistêmicos (SE) surge para contribuir na transformação desse cenário, buscando promover a gestão sustentável de paisagens. Diversas estruturas conceituais sobre os SE foram desenvolvidas nos últimos anos. Contudo, a definição de serviços do solo foi pouco discutida, bem como o reconhecimento do amplo papel desse recurso na prestação de serviços essenciais à vida humana. A apropriação deste conceito é ainda menos frequente em pesquisas nos países da região tropical, devido ao baixo número de estudos, projetos e iniciativas dedicadas ao tema, quando comparados com a região temperada. Essa situação coloca importantes domínios biogeográficos, como a Mata Atlântica, em maiores dificuldades de transformar o atual cenário de degradação e recuperar sua biodiversidade. Nesse contexto, este estudo busca aprofundar a discussão sobre o papel dos solos como provedores de SE, com foco na região tropical, além de aplicar métodos de avaliação de tais serviços em uma área de restauração ecológica na região da Mata Atlântica Brasileira. Para isso, se avaliou e discutiu como os solos foram relatados e percebidos ao longo do tempo, sua relação com o conceito de paisagem e como são vistos nas estruturas de SE. Ainda, este trabalho esclarece e diferencia o conceito de SE do solo de outros conceitos associados, tais como, propriedade, processo e função do solo, e também a sua relação com os Objetivos para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável. Em seguida, realizou-se uma revisão sistemática para avaliar o estado da arte dos SE do solo em regiões tropicais. Por fim, avaliou-se o efeito de diferentes técnicas no plantio de mudas para a recuperação ambiental e sua consequente influência na qualidade do solo e provisão do serviço de estoque de carbono, em uma região tropical brasileira dentro do domínio Mata Atlântica. Além disso, o SE de estoque de carbono foi valorado. Uma estrutura conceitual atualizada foi desenvolvida, sintetizando os SE do solo e sua relação com os Objetivos para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável, útil à academia e aos tomadores de decisão. Além disso, os resultados demonstraram baixo número de publicações e uma grande lacuna de conhecimento referente às abordagens de SE do solo na região tropical. Com relação às técnicas de plantio analisadas, observou-se que mesmo com a baixa sobrevivência das plântulas, o manejo com o plantio das mudas apresentou efeito positivo para a qualidade do solo, ao longo de quatros anos. Essas mudanças podem gerar benefícios ambientais e econômicos aos proprietários, considerando o fortalecimento de um mercado de carbono no país. Este trabalho preenche algumas lacunas de conhecimento relacionadas à temática dos SE do solo na região tropical e oferece informações úteis para a gestão sustentável de paisagens. / [en] Landscapes degradation at different spatial and temporal scales have threatened human and non-human life on Earth. The Ecosystem Services (ES) concept and framework appears to contribute to the transformation of this scenario, seeking to promote the sustainable management of landscapes. Several conceptual frameworks on ES have been developed in recent years. However, the definition of soil services was little discussed and the recognition of the broad role of this resource in the provision of essential services to human life. The appropriation of this concept is even less frequent in research in the countries of the tropical region due to the low number of studies, projects and initiatives dedicated to the theme compared to the temperate region. This situation places important biogeographic domains, such as the Atlantic Forest, in greater difficulties in transforming the current degradation scenario and recovering its biodiversity. In this context, this study seeks to deepen the discussion on the role of soils as providers of ES, focusing on the tropical region and applying methods of evaluation of such services in an ecological restoration area in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest region. We evaluated and discussed how soils were reported and perceived over time, their relationship with the concept of landscape and how they are seen in ES structures. Furthermore, this work clarifies and differentiates the concept of soil ES from other associated concepts, such as soil property, process and function, and its relationship with the Sustainable Development Goals. Then, a systematic review was carried out to assess the state of the art of of soil ES in tropical regions. Finally, the effect of different techniques in planting seedlings for environmental recovery and their consequent influence on soil quality and provision of carbon stock service in a Brazilian tropical region within the Atlantic Forest domain was evaluated. In addition, the valuation of the carbon stock service was done. An updated conceptual framework was developed, synthesizing the soil ES and their relationship with the Sustainable Development Goals, useful to academia and decision-makers. In addition, the results showed a low number of publications and a large knowledge gap regarding soil ES approaches in the tropical region. Regarding the planting techniques analyzed, it was observed that even with the low survival of the seedlings, the management with the planting of seedlings had a positive effect on soil quality over four years. These changes can generate environmental and economic benefits for the owners, considering strengthening a carbon market in the country. This work fills in some knowledge gaps related to the soil ES theme in the tropical region and offers helpful information for the sustainable management of landscapes.