Les trois chapitres principaux de cette thèse ont pour point commun l'analyse économique de la communication interpersonnelle en tant que choix sous contrainte. Or, comme on dit, talk is cheap. Pourtant, les trois chapitres élaborent trois contraintes différentes qui pourraient s'imposer à la communication interpersonnelle. Dans le premier chapitre, la contrainte est de nature stratégique : en équilibre, les communications différentes suscitent des réactions différentes chez les interlocuteurs. Donc les individus choisissent leur communication en fonction de la réaction qu'ils espèrent susciter. Dans le deuxième chapitre, la contrainte est plus intrinsèque. On y recherche de manière expérimentale dans quelle mesure les gens se contraignent à dire la vérité pour la vérité. Dans le troisième chapitre, la contrainte est encore différente car elle est due cette fois au fait que le communicateur n'a pas pour but de communiquer quoi que ce soit. Il veut, en fait, se donner une idée faussée du sujet. Ainsi, un interlocuteur qui essaierait d'apprendre de la communication doit tenir en compte ces distorsions éventuelles, qui deviennent une contrainte sur la transmission de l'information. Les trois chapitres s'inscrivent dans un courant d'économie comportementale. Cette mouvance essaie d'ouvrir un peu la « boîte noire » des préférences, en soulevant des questions sur les facteurs qui motivent les choix réels. Ces questions sont dangereuses car elles risquent de supposer ce qu'il fallait démontrer, en réduisant l'explication d'un comportement à la simple volonté de le faire. Pour éviter ce piège, il faut se pencher sur une vision des motivations qu'on croit raisonnables avant de travailler sur les comportements spécifiques. Les prolégomènes de la thèse bâtissent donc un cadre d'analyse qui cherche à soutenir une réflexion précise sur la nature du comportement social qu'on essaie d'interpréter. Ce cadre est appliqué par la suite dans l'élaboration des modèles dans les trois chapitres. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : incitations normatives, communication, jeux, comportement, honnêteté

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Over the past twenty years, the cooperation within the European Union (EU) has strengthened and expanded with both more number of Member States and stronger influence on international politics. The unique character of the Union and its ability to enforce peace and humanitarian intervention has attracted attention in political science. This prominent position of the Union is perceived by many scholars who often hold this derived from the Union's influence in international relations. Various terms have been used to define the powers of the Union. The British researcher Ian Manners states that the unique identity of the Union in the international arena is formed by its normative power.    An important policy area within the Union is the environmental cooperation. It is essential to have a global understanding that an increasing cooperation within the environmental policy area is necessary in order to combat environmental degradation and climate change. In this study I have therefore chosen to examine if the Union can be considered a normative power in the area of environmental policy. To fulfill the purpose of my study I choose to examine the Kyoto protocol (2008- 2012). The Kyoto Protocol is an extension of the United Nations Framework on Climate Change and is the dominant global initiative in global environmental activities.   After studying the way towards global cooperation in the battle against climate change I would say that it is obvious that the EU has guided a number of stages of key importance. In international cooperation, states are usually not willing to accept the costs they may incur from taking on greater responsibilities than other parties. The Union’s imprint as a leading party in the global fight against climate change is in many ways tangible.

L’instauration d’un contrôle de constitutionnalité au sein du système juridique a d’importantes conséquences sur la façon d’appréhender la constitution. En effet, si l’on estime traditionnellement que les juges qui en sont chargés ne font qu’appliquer des normes constitutionnelles préexistantes, l’étude théorique de la production normative au sein du système juridique permet d’envisager le pouvoir créateur des juridictions à travers leur aptitude à attribuer une signification juridique aux énoncés qu’elles interprètent. On peut alors considérer qu’en exerçant un contrôle de constitutionnalité, les juges sont bien en mesure de produire les normes constitutionnelles qu’ils sont réputées « découvrir » dans le texte de la constitution et appliquer aux cas qui leur sont soumis. L’analyse du discours juridique amène à conclure que l’usage de ce pouvoir créateur par les juges constitutionnels a des effets sur la représentation de la constitution. La mise en avant fréquente de normes formulées de façon très générale, notamment les fameux principes, traduit une tendance à avoir de la constitution une conception axiologique, qui s’illustre notamment à travers le rapprochement esquissé entre les jurisprudences constitutionnelle et européenne. / The establishment of judicial review within the legal system has important consequences on the way the constitution is comprehended. Indeed, even though it is generally acknowledged that the judges, who are assigned to such a task, only enforce pre-existing constitutional norms, theoretical studies about norm production within the legal system allows to consider their normative power as regards to their ability to assign legal meaning to text they interpret. We can therefore consider that when they carry out judicial review, the judges are able to produce constitutional norms which they are supposedly « discovering » in the wording of the Constitution and apply it to the cases submitted to them. The analysis of the legal discourse brings us to conclude that the use of such a normative power by constitutional judges impacts on the representation of the Constitution. Frequently putting forward norms expressed in a very general manner, in particular the much talked about principles, reflects a trend towards an axiological conception of the constitution, which especially illustrates itself through a closer connection outlined between constitutional and European case law.

The study lies within in the realm of architectural theory and considers the ontology of interior design by investigating the marginalisation of the discipline within the architectural profession. The discipline is personified and placed in a dialectic relationship with architecture. This enables the researcher to disengage interior design from architecture and, by stating the disciplines as ‘absolute Others’ the researcher is allowed to essentialise the disciplines in question. The research was conducted with a liberal plural meta-theoretical approach and can best be described as a heuristic enquiry. In this situation neither the objective realm, nor the researcher’s subjectivity is the primary focus. Literature studies were employed to identify relevant architectural theories to supply the necessary empirical material. The dissertation is presented as object-relations oriented criticism and follows a subversive strategy to allow the researcher to inscribe his self-identification as an interior designer. The findings are presented as a negative depiction of the status quo. This can be summarised as a situation where the existence of a dialectic opposite pair (‘interior design’: ‘architecture’) is the main obstacle in the establishment of a discrete identity for interior design. The dialectic pair is deconstructed to allow interior design to form its own identity without reference to architecture. The study concludes that interior design and architecture are not separate professions, since they are unable to establish discrete, autonomous fields of knowledge; they are, however, distinct disciplines or ‘branches of learning’. The study defines interior design as a mode of cultural production which engages in the design of enclosed spaces in existing structures, with emphasis on the design of volume. In addition, the study proposes the creation of a single architectural profession to contain the architectural disciplines. / Dissertation (MInt (Research))--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Architecture / unrestricted

An architecture for norm-regulated multi-agent systems based on an algebraic approach to normative systems is instrumentalized and further developed. The core of the instrumentalization is a Prolog module, which together with a Java library can be used for creating client/server-based runtime systems. Norms are represented as conditional sentences, whose normative consequences are formulated by applying normative operators to descriptive conditions. From such general normative conditions follow normative sentences regarding specific states of affairs. These in turn result in permission or prohibition of individual actions in specific situations. Furthermore, an approach to turning runtime systems into instruments for problem-solving by using evolutionary mechanisms for evolving normative systems, is presented. The construction of norm-creating operators on conditions, which forms the basis for the representation of normative systems, is approached from two angles. (i) A logical analysis based on the Kanger-Lindahl theory of normative positions is conducted. This results in two extended sets of types of normative positions, and based on an algebraic version of one of these extended systems, a set of operators for creating agent-specific norms is constructed. (ii) An alternative analysis, which takes as its starting point a systematic exploration of types of state transitions, yields a set of norm-creating operators based on prohibition of transition types. It is furthermore argued that in the context of a class of transition systems, in which transitions are deterministic and associated with a single agent performing an act, operators based on (ii) specify a meaningful semantics of operators based on (i). Theoretical results together with shared code and example applications contribute to make possible theoretically sound, transparently described, and efficiently implemented norm-regulated autonomous agent systems. / En arkitektur för normreglerade multiagentsystem baserad på en algebraisk representation av normativa system instrumentaliseras och vidareutvecklas. Kärnan i instrumentaliseringen utgörs av en Prolog-modul som tillsammans med ett Java-bibliotek kan användas för att skapa client/server-baserad körbar kod. Normer representeras som ordnade par av grundvillkor och följdvillkor. De senare konstrueras genom att normativa operatorer appliceras på deskriptiva villkor. Från sådana generella normativa villkor följer normativa satser om specifika sakförhållanden, vilka i sin tur ger upphov till förbud mot eller tillåtelse att utföra enskilda handlingar i olika situationer. Vidare skisseras en metod för att göra körbara multiagentsystem till verktyg för problemlösning genom att använda evolutionära mekanismer för att odla fram normativa system. Konstruktionen av normskapande operatorer på villkor, vilka ligger till grund för representationen av normativa system, betraktas ur två olika synvinklar. (i) En logisk analys, baserad på Kanger-Lindahls teori om normativa positioner. Denna resulterar i två utökade uppsättningar av typer av normativa positioner och utgående från en algebraisk version av ett av dessa utökade system konstrueras sedan en uppsättning operatorer för att skapa agentspecifika normer. (ii) En alternativ analys, som tar sin utgångspunkt i en systematisk undersökning av olika typer av tillståndsövergångar. Denna ger upphov till en uppsättning av normskapande operatorer som är baserade på förbud mot olika typer av övergångar. Argument presenteras vidare för att inom ramen för en klass av övergångssystem, där övergångar är deterministiska och associerade med en agent som utför en handling, så specificerar operatorer baserade på (ii) en meningsfull semantik för operatorer baserade på (i). Teoretiska resultat tillsammans med tillgängliggjord programkod och exempel på tillämpningar bidrar till att underlätta skapandet av teoretiskt sunda, transparent beskrivna och effektivt implementerade normreglerade system av autonoma agenter. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Submitted. Paper 5: Forthcoming.</p>

On the assumption that there are no objective normative facts, what is the best theory of normative language? I try to answer this question. Chapter 1 argues for a presumption against noncognitivism and explains why error-theories are of limited interest: they concern adverbs and adjectives like ‘moral’, but not words like ‘ought’, ‘good’ and ‘reason’. This narrows down the options: the best subjectivist theory of normative language is a truth conditional, non-error-theoretic account. Chapter 2 argues for contextualism about normative statements. Contextualists hold that their truth conditions (can) vary with the context of utterance. Chapter 3 starts the assessment of contextualist theories. It looks into Humean accounts. Problems are revealed with both Harman’s and Schroeder’s versions. Chapter 4 develops a form of indexical relativism according to which the truth of normative statements depends on contextually salient rules. I present imperative-based analyses of ‘ought’ and ‘reason’ and show how they can explain why ‘A ought to X’ entails that the balance of reasons favours that A X-es. Chapter 5 further develops the theory of chapter 4 and applies it to the words ‘good’ and ‘must’. It turns out to be hard to analyse ‘good’. It also emerges that ‘must’ and ‘ought’ cannot be given different truth conditions. Chapter 6 explains Stephen Finlay’s end-relational theory. On this account, normative statements concern the relation in which acts or objects stand to contextually salient ends. In the case of ‘ought’ and ‘good’, this relation is one of probability raising. Chapter 7 discusses and answers some familiar objections to Finlay’s view. Chapter 8 raises some new problems, related to the fact that normative judgments are often made in the light of several ends. Chapter 9 explains why the end-relational theory is nonetheless the best subjectivist theory of normative language.

Café magazine is a Swedish men’s lifestyle magazine aimed at men between the ages of 18 and 35. The magazine writes about what men should wear, what they should drink, which new gadgets they should buy and a lot more. They aim to teach men about how to live their lives. This study focuses on how the magazine writes about men, and how they portray masculinities. The questions this study has tried to answer are -How are the men portrayed in the lifestyle magazine Café? And - Which images of masculinities are being distributed to the readers?   What we found was that the normative images of masculinities are being distributed to the readers, but also that the magazine was trying to break the existing normative by talking about deeper feelings and therapy with the men being interviewed for the magazine. It seems the magazine are trying to keep up with the fast-changing world but not quite being able to keep up. According to Giddens and Sutton (2014) it would be helpful for the readers of magazines to be exposed to normative breaking material. That way they could start breaking normatives as well as the magazine.

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L’État de droit peut se définir comme un système institutionnel dans lequel la puissance publique est soumise au droit. Cette notion, a été redéfinie au début du vingtième siècle par Hans Kelsen comme : « un État dans lequel les normes juridiques sont hiérarchisées de telle sorte que sa puissance s’en trouve limitée ». Un tel système qui pose la soumission des patients à la règle, présuppose outre la légitimité de ses agents, la traduction objective de la normativité qui en est issue. Pour autant il appert de l’observation des dispositifs qui en résultent, des anomalies structurelles et fonctionnelles dont les effets cliniques constitutifs d’un syndrome, pointent les dysfonctionnements d’un espace juridictionnel essentiellement abandonné aux individualités. En conséquence, les interactions entre les agents et les patients (justiciables, défendeurs, demandeurs) ne sauraient être dissociées de l’analyse de ces manifestations spécifiques au droit continental, notamment français contemporain. C’est donc, après avoir procédé à l’identification du syndrome et à l’analyse du « concept dispositif », fait le constat d’un paradoxe régulatoire constant et relevé les signes cliniques des affections, que nous en avons déduis les vecteurs. Toutefois, le constat qui en est résulté conduisait, soit à considérer le phénomène inéluctable et à l’intégrer, soit à en rechercher les causes originelles et les voies susceptibles d’en atténuer les effets. Par suite, c’est à l’aune d’un paradigme constant, propre au droit continental, qu’après avoir relevé les effets et identifié les causes des affections ainsi révélées par le syndrome du dispositif, que nous avons imaginé le concept de résidualisme. Partant, après en avoir aperçu tant les fondements que la stratégie, nous en avons recherché les premières pistes susceptibles d’en réduire la portée et de conduire à l’élaboration d’un dispositif « assisté », visant tant à obtenir l’adhésion effective des agents et des patients, qu’à décharger le juge d’une responsabilité normative qui n’est pas la sienne. / The two bodies of the judge and the syndrome of the device: study on the causes of the normative incompleteness, legal scope and its other consequences in contemporary French continental law.The rule of law can be defined as an institutional system in which the public authority is subject to the law. This notion has been redefined in the early twentieth century by Hans Kelsen as: "a State in which legal standards are prioritized so that its power is limited. Such a system that asks patients to the rule submission, presupposes the legitimacy of its agents, in addition to objective translation of normativity which from. So far it appears from the observation devices resulting, structural and functional abnormalities with the constituent clinical effects of a syndrome, that point the dysfunctions of a jurisdictional space essentially abandoned to individualities. As a result, the interactions between agents and patients (litigants, defendants, plaintiffs) cannot be separated from the analysis of these events specific to the continental law, including contemporary french. It is therefore, after identification of the syndrome and the analysis of the 'system concept', made the observation that for a constant regulatory paradox and noted the clinical signs of disease, that we examined the vectors. However, the observation that resulted was driving, consider the inevitable and to integrate it, either search for the original causes and ways to mitigate the effects. Accordingly, it is in the light of a paradigm of constant, clean to the continental law, after having noted the effects and identified the causes of disease as revealed by the syndrome of the device, we have created the concept of residualism. Therefore, after to have seen both the foundations that the strategy we sought in the first tracks likely to reduce the scope and lead to the development of a "guided" device, both aiming to get effective accession of agents and of the patients, to unload the judge of a normative responsibility is not hers.