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This study contributes to filling a gap identified in the current Malaysian national waste policy, the National Strategic Plan for Solid Waste Management (NSPSWM 2005). It also contributes to the sparse knowledge of NGOs’ involvement in Malaysia in promoting recycling and general environmental awareness with the Malaysian public particularly in an urban context. Although the NSPSWM alludes to NGOs as actors that can assist in improving the public’s awareness of and participation in sustainable waste management (SWM), there is sparse knowledge on how this is facilitated. This study was also motivated to investigate to what extent social learning elements were being embodied in the initiatives of two NGOs that were studied, as it is posited that facilitations for social learning create pathways for change. Although there are various studies on the functions of NGOs, there is little research conducted on how environmental NGOs play a part in SWM in Malaysia. The research approach applied in this thesis was mixed-methods, and the rationale was to apply both qualitative and quantitative methods that would be useful and would combine complementary strengths to help answer the research questions. A qualitative two-case-study approach was used to predict similar or contrasting results based on the theoretical framework considered relevant. The unit of analysis of each case study was a programme that promoted recycling as a sustainable waste management strategy, to the general public in the study area of Selangor, Malaysia. The first case study’s target audience was urban school students; while the second case study’s focus was urban school students, charity homes for the handicapped and hypermarkets. Both NGOs are considered two of the earliest NGOs in the study area to be involved in promoting SWM with the public. The quantitative aspects included findings from a questionnaire survey of 411 students. The population sampled was obtained based on a stratified sampling procedure. The urban student population’s response was collected to gain insights into students’ perception of NGOs’ involvement in SWM, and into what factors significantly influence the students’ recycling participation in schools. Both descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. The findings from this approach complemented the qualitative findings obtained from the two case studies. In addition, interviews were conducted with some students to complement the survey evidence. Where relevant, secondary evidence from the press, reports and Web pages were used to support the primary evidence. The qualitative evidence was synthesized and the aggregated findings were then triangulated with the quantitative evidence for corroboration purposes. These evaluations revealed that the processes involved in the programmes to promote recycling supported social learning and positive outcomes. Almost half of the students sampled were aware and welcomed NGOs’ involvement in SWM, both in schools and in their community. They reported that they learned more about SWM and the environment from participating in their school’s SWM programmes (although these programmes may not necessarily have been facilitated by the particular environmental NGO identified in the case studies). The students also generally perceived that the government should support NGOs’ involvement in SWM and that SWM programmes in schools coordinated by NGOs were beneficial to their learning about SWM. Various factors were also found to have influenced their participation in sustainable waste behavior. The findings could be used to inform the relevant policy makers’ decisions about NGOs’ contributions towards SWM. In addition, the findings from the students’ survey could help inform other NGOs or other organisations, such as universities or corporate bodies that are interested in implementing SWM programmes with schools and who may be eager to extend their corporate social responsibilities using approaches similar to those highlighted in this thesis.

This thesis investigated the technological economics of waste paper recovery and recycling in UK. The major problem in waste paper recycling is still the removal of contraries, although technological developments have so far been able to remove some of them. The costs incurred by the local authorities in recovering waste paper were investigated. Local authority costing was found to be inconsistent and many of them did not include all the relevant indirect costs and savings, so that many local authorities claimed to be making heavy losses in their operations. Full accounting incorporating all the relevant indirect costs and savings have shown that most local authorities incurred much smaller losses and in some cases profited from their waste paper recovery operations. A general computer model was developed to allow local authorities to check the viability of their on-going operations and another computer model was developed for an investment appraisal of a proposed waste paper recovery operation. Multiple regression models were developed to forecast the demand of waste paper in the short term and the long term. The cost to the mill in recycling waste paper was also examined. Waste paper recycling can only be increased by improving demand for waste paper based products. Various alternatives for diversifying the markets for waste paper were investigated, particularly those outside the paper and board industry. The government's role in helping to inc~ease waste paper recovery and recycling was examined and some government actions that could be taken were proposed.

The calculation of dry particle deposition velocity (Vg) for small particles in field studies is subject to much variability between theoretical and measured values. This work will assess some of the factors which may influence the calculation of Vg. The other key parameter which is used to define the near-surface exchange of material is the resuspension factor (K). The certainty of using a Vg which is representative of small particles typically 1 pm requires clarification. During September 1993-1994, four size-selective air and deposition experiments were carried out at an on-site and off-site sampling location close to the BNFL Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant in Cumbria UK. Dry and total (wet & dry) particle deposition velocities were determined for ^^^Cs, The dry deposition velocities of naturally-occurring ^Be were also determined and used as a 'marker' for small particle transport processes. Resuspension factors K (m ^) for radiocaesium and Plutonium were also derived. Automated individual particle characterisation (AlP) using scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy-dispersive x-ray analysis (SEM-EDXA) was used to determine the particle size distribution and associated elemental composition of material deposited to Frisbee deposition collectors. Enhanced a-emitting hot-spots from surface soils and material deposited to Frisbee collectors at 1 m above ground level were isolated and characterised for size and shape using nuclear track detector film, LR-115. Dry particle deposition velocities for ^^^Cs, 239+240py and were commonly in excess of 1E-03 m s"^ by more than two orders of magnitude. Total deposition velocities (dry and wet) were even higher with values ranging from 0.2 m s^ -1 ms"^ for both radiocaesium and plutonium. High derived values of dry deposition velocity for radiocaesium and plutonium were to some extent influenced by air sampling artefacts. Air sampling artefacts result in an under-estimation of airborne activity for radioactivity associated with particle diameters >10 pm. The derived values of dry particle deposition velocity for ^Be were consistent with literature values of sub-micron sized particles with evidence of a seasonal spring maximum. Resuspension factors K (m'^) for radiocaesium and plutonium agreed well with literature values of weathered weapons fallout values which ranged from 2E-08 to 5E-11 (m"^) for plutonium and radiocaesium respectively. Differences in dry particle deposition velocities for radiocaesium and plutonium between the on-site and off-site locations varied by no more than a factor of three. Correlations between dry particle deposition velocities for Cs and Pu with wind speed, wind direction and precipitation rates were not found. Size-specific air sampling show that the majority of the plutonium was predominantly associated with the >11 lam aerosol size fraction. The association between activity and large particle size suggest this material was probably attached to large soil-derived particles. Plutonium isotope data indicate this material originated fromthe nuclear weapons programme of the late 1950's-earty 1970's. Radiocaesiumactivities were equally distributed between the < 10 ixm and > 11 ^m aerosol fractions for two out of the four runs. This suggests that historically deposited ''^^Cs and current emissions contributed to measured airborne activities. Enhanced a-emitting hot-spots were isolated from bulk surface soils and in material deposited to Frisbee collectors. Rare particles such as these with atypical activities of Pu may lead to mis-leadingly high deposition fluxes. The calculation of Vg in the field is therefore sensitive to the presence of these particles because they are not representative of the aerosol flux and their size s 50 |im precludes their collection by the Pmio air sampler. The main conclusions of this work indicates the very high values of Vg sometimes measured in the field are strongly influenced by large resuspended soil particles and associated air sampling artefacts. The inclusion of large particles within the deposition flux is confirmed by size selective mass based Vg using scanning electron microscopy

Monitored natural attenuation is a cost-effective remediation strategy for the risk reduction of chemicals of concern (CoCs) in contaminated land and waters. This study considers three genuine sites in Germany, undergoing remediation. The objective was to measure a suite of physicochemical and biological parameters, and characterise the sites based on these data. The sites differed by their prevalent type of CoC, with one site impacted by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and two sites, situated in Hilden, impacted by BTEX. Sampling of microorganisms was performed using the industrial partner's newly developed matrix. This matrix was used for measurements of microbial respiration rate, ATP content, and 14C mineralisation rate, while groundwater samples were used for microbial luminescent biosensor assays (applying Escherichia coli HB101 pUCD607, Pseudomonas putida F1 Tn5, and Pseudomonas putida F1 TVA8), and for the chemical analysis of CoC, nitrate, iron, manganese, sulphate, and phosphate concentration. Microbial biosensors and respiration tests performed well in the identification of BTEX impacted wells at the Hilden sites, while the results for ATP content and 14C mineralisation were more ambiguous. Factor analysis showed a high impact of sulphate concentration. However, several strong correlations existed between measured parameters, so no single driving force, but a set of environmental influencing factors could be identified at the sites. The remediation progress could be demonstrated by the changes in cluster analyses between two time points. Sulphate and redox potential, the most influential parameters of the Hilden physico-chemical data set, were highlighted and confirmed by multiple linear regression, using a calculated attenuation rate as the dependent variable. Based on this outcome, a reduced sampling regime was proposed. This approach has the potential to reduce sampling costs and time at hydrocarbon contaminated sites, and has adequately demonstrated the use of statistical methods in assessing the remediation progress at a site.

This paper deals with challenges associated with handling scrubber waste in the port of Karlshamn and what various industry partners are doing to meet this growing demand. The main challenges have been the proportion of ships with scrubber, the amount of generated waste and waste characterisation. An understanding of these factors has been crucial in order to ascertain the aim of this study, which has been made with calculations based on leading manufacturer’s scrubber analyses and with an estimation of the quantity of ships with scrubber by examining AIS data from the Port of Karlshamn. In order to calculate the quantity of scrubber waste two different scenarios were established, which in turn produced two different outcomes. It has been shown that these two do not represent a significant effect for the waste handling in port. It has been established that the scrubber waste is hazardous waste and needs to be disposed in port without involvement of other types of waste. The amount of scrubber waste is relatively small compared to today’s waste handling in Swedish ports and can be managed with ease, this despite a potential rising demand for scrubbers in the future. Keywords:  Scrubber, SECA, waste handling, sulphur oxide

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The mechanisms controlling radiocaesium migration through the peat soil were investigated by considering physico-chemical & biological factors affecting radionuclide adsorption/desorption in the peat soil using the Batch & Column Methods as well as a "Direct Fumigation Extraction Method". The biological factors were investigated under different conditions by variation of the micro-organisms content in the peat soil, the soil solution and leaching conditions. Samples of peat soil were reacted with solutions containing caesium ions, and the effect on caesium-K_d determined. The caesium adsorption/desorption was found to be influenced by concentration of caesium and other cations (NH₄⁺, K⁺ and Ca⁺⁺) and by the pH of the solution. Below pH 3, in presence of calcium and potassium, desorption could occur as the exchangeable sites on microparticles were replaced by other cations. At pH>1, in presence of ammonium, adsorption could occur. The distribution coefficient, K_d value was strongly reduced following the addition of NH₄⁺, K⁺ and Ca⁺⁺ at a fixed pH. NH₄⁺ was found to be more effective in the caesium desorption than the other cations. By increasing the concentration of radiocaesium (>0.2 MBq/100μl) the effect became much less leading eventually to an increase in caesium-K_d values. A decrease in the caesium-K_d was also observed at pH<3 in peat samples. It was found that the caesium adsorption approached to an equilibrium state at pH>3 depending upon caesium concentration in peat solution. Caesium adsorption took 180 days to reach equilibrium state. For the measurement of the release/uptake of radionuclides in the peat soils by the microbial biomass, homogenised wet peat samples were fumigated by chloroform. The influence of the microbial population present in the peat on the environmental mobility of caesium was clearly demonstrated.