Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.

Past research indicates that social rejection predicts a wide range of psychological problems (e.g., depression), but laboratory studies examining self-reports of negative affect after social rejection have reported inconsistent results. Salivary cortisol was measured before and after a social rejection/acceptance manipulation for objective assessment of psychological distress subsequent to peer rejection. Rejected participants were predicted to show significantly greater salivary cortisol than accepted or control participants. The present research also examined several factors that may moderate the relationship between acute rejection and cortisol. As predicted, rejected participants exhibited significantly higher cortisol than accepted or control participants. Defensiveness moderated the relationship between rejection and cortisol; highly defensive rejected participants showed significantly lower cortisol than less defensive rejected participants after peer rejection. Results indicate that social rejection causes psychological distress, but highly defensive individuals appear to be less susceptible than less defensive individuals to increases in salivary cortisol after acute social rejection.

Workplace ostracism is a ubiquitous phenomenon that can have negative implications for both individuals and organizations. Despite evidence indicating that ostracism is a painful experience associated with detrimental health and work-related outcomes, very little research has investigated the potential role of personal resources and workplace interventions in mitigating the prevalence and harmful impact of ostracism on employees. Mindfulness--due to its implications for enhanced attention in personal interactions, heightened awareness of others' needs, and acceptance of stressful situations--is one such resource that could prove beneficial in this regard. The current research examined the role of both trait and state mindfulness in reducing the propensity to commit ostracizing behaviors and attenuating perceptions of being "out of the loop" due to one's own lack of attention. Additionally, mindfulness was expected to buffer the harmful impact of workplace ostracism on need satisfaction, and thus have relevance for more distal health-related (i.e., psychological well-being) and work-related (i.e., job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors) outcomes. Three studies investigated these relationships through cross-sectional (Study 1), experimental laboratory-based (Study 2), and quasi-experimental intervention-based (Study 3) designs. Evidence of the benefits of mindfulness in decreasing exclusionary behaviors and protecting targets of ostracism was apparent in each study. The current studies yield support for the relevance of mindfulness in addressing the substantial problem of ostracism within workplaces and other organizations.

Two experiments examined the theorized link between the use of gender-exclusive language and ostracism. In two experiments, women and men read a job overview that contained either masculine gender-exclusive language (he), gender-inclusive language (he or she), or gender-neutral language (one). They then rated their feelings of exclusion (i.e., ostracism), described their personal investment in the described job (Experiments 1 and 2) and evaluated the work environment (Experiment 2). In both experiments, women reported feeling most ostracized when they were exposed to gender-exclusive language compared to gender-inclusive language. Furthermore, women in Experiment 1 reported least personal investment in the job when exposed to gender-exclusive versus –inclusive language, but this pattern of results did not replicate in Experiment 2. As expected, men did not respond differently to language type in either experiment. The divergence in women’s responses between Experiments 1 and 2 are discussed in terms of the role that awareness of one’s ostracized status might play in women’s reactions to this form of subtle ostracism.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This study examined effects of ostracism on psychological well-being and self-control and the roles of the personality traits hope, optimism, and forgiveness as moderators of these effects. Undergraduate students (N=104) were randomly assigned to be included or excluded in a computerized ball-toss game, Cyberball. Facets of psychological well-being examined included belonging and self-esteem. Participants also completed cognitive and physical self-control measures via tracing and handgrip tasks. Ostracized participants experienced less belonging, but there was no significant difference between groups on self-esteem. Ostracized participants persisted for less time on the tracing task. There were no significant differences between groups for performance on the handgrip task. None of the personality traits were found to moderate the effects of ostracism on psychological well-being or self-control. Results are discussed in terms of implications and recommendations for future researchers.

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本研究旨在探討主管排擠部屬行為的前因，以部屬能力與威脅感作為解釋之機制，部屬能力可藉由威脅感對主管排擠產生影響。並以集體認同、知覺相似性作為部屬能力與威脅感間關係的調節變項；最後則探討主管排擠對於部屬幸福感與部屬主管承諾的影響。 本研究採用便利性取樣，使用對偶方式進行資料收集，研究對象為一般私人企業之員工，共發出紙本問卷328套，回收234套，回收率為71%，有效問卷為207套，有效回收率為63%。藉由SPSS 20與Lisrel 8.8等統計軟體進行資料分析，本研究結果顯示，部屬能力會透過威脅感對主管排擠產生正向的間接效果；當部屬越知覺主管對自己有排擠行為時，部屬之主管承諾越低；部屬知覺主管排擠對部屬幸福感則不具影響；而不論是集體認同或是知覺相似性，對於部屬能力與威脅感間的關係，皆無預期之調節效果。最後，針對本研究之結果進行討論，並說明理論貢獻、管理意涵、研究限制與未來研究建議。 / This study aimed at investigating the antecedents of supervisor ostracism. We used subordinates’ competence and threat from subordinates as mechanisms to illustrate the antecedents of supervisor ostracism. We hope to explore the indirect effect of subordinates’ competence on supervisor ostracism via threat from subordinates. Moreover, we proposed that collective identity and perceived supervisor-subordinate similarity can moderate the relationship between subordinates’ competence and threat from subordinates. We further explore the direct effect of supervisor ostracism on supervisor commitment and well-being. The sample of this study is selected using convenience sampling, and the data is dyad-level data. Totally 328 questionnaires were issued and 234 were returned. The response rate is 71%. Among returned questionnaires, there were 207 effective questionnaires with the effective rate of 63%. The collected data was analyzed by SPSS 20 and Lisrel 8.8. The result indicated that subordinates’ competence has positive indirect effect on supervisor ostracism via threat from subordinates. Although subordinate perceived supervisor ostracism has negative effect on supervisor commitment, it had no effect on well-being. Supervisor collective identity and perceived supervisor-subordinate similarity did not moderate the relationship between subordinates’ competence and threat from subordinates. Finally, theoretical and managerial implications of these findings are discussed.

Researchers have long argued that ritual plays a crucial role in marking social identities and binding individuals together in a system of shared actions and beliefs. The psychological processes underlying how and why ritual promotes group bonding and influences in- and out-group biases have not yet been fully elucidated. The research presented in this thesis was designed to examine the social and cognitive developmental underpinnings of conventional/ ritualistic behavior. Because learning cultural conventions is essential for participation in group behavior and for signaling group membership and commitment, I propose that conventional/ ritualistic learning is motivated by a drive to affiliate. Experiment 1 investigated the affiliative nature of ritualistic learning by examining the effects of third-party ostracism on imitation of an instrumental versus ritual action sequence and prosocial behavior. Individuals who do not participate in shared group conventions often face the threat of ostracism from the group. Given that attempting re-inclusion is an established response to ostracism, I predicted that the threat of ostracism increases affiliative motivations and thus will increase imitative fidelity, especially in the context of conventional learning. Experiment 2 examined the effects of first-person ostracism in the context of in- and out-groups on children’s imitation of a ritualistic action sequence and pro-social behavior. I predicted that the experience of ostracism by an in-group versus an out-group has important implications for the construal of social exclusion and affiliative behavior. I hypothesized that children would be motivated to re-affiliate by imitating the model and acting pro-socially towards the group, especially when ostracized by in-group members. Based on the findings of this research and insight from anthropology, and social and developmental psychology, I will present a picture of how children acquire the conventions of their group and how these conventions influence social group cognition.

This thesis analyses the ostracising of the unlike as social criticism in H.G.Wells&rsquo / s The Time Machine, The Island of Dr. Moreau and The Invisible Man against a background of T.H.Huxley&rsquo / s cosmic pessimism in his work Evolution and Ethics. The thesis claims that Wells puts mankind&rsquo / s future on an ever darkening line of evolution, or in other words devolution. Wells, although he is an admirer of Huxley, shows a more sceptical and cynical attitude in the assessment of the capabilities and nature of mankind. The three novels constituting the subject of the present study bears the stamp of this scepticism in increasingly pessimistic degrees.