In this thesis, I examined ethnobotanical uses, traditional knowledge and folk classification of moolks, Pacific crabapple (Malus fusca (Raf.) C.K. Schneid.; Rosaceae) for the Gitga’at First Nation of Hartley Bay, and measured morphological variation of sampled trees at the traditional harvesting location. This deciduous tree has historically been an important resource for food, materials and medicine for Indigenous Peoples throughout most of its range along the Pacific coast of North America. One of these groups is the Gitga’at people, whose knowledge is also interesting due to their recognition of approximately five unique varieties. I conducted interviews with seven Gitga’at elders, who recognize up to five distinct varieties moolks, based on fruit characteristics and harvesting location, each with its specific applications. The cultural importance of crabapples was documented through these interviews, as expressed in their folk taxonomy, linguistic knowledge, ethnobotanical uses and management strategies. In addition, I conducted a morphological and ecological study to examine the variability within and among 27 crabapple trees. To determine ecological and morphological variability of crabapples within its traditional harvesting area, I sampled foliage and fruits and measured their traits from individual trees and different sites, and recorded information about the localized habitat. While some fruit and leaf traits are correlated, I identified significant variation within and among trees making it hard to delineate the varieties as described by the elders. In conclusion, by using these two knowledge systems – traditional ecological knowledge and western scientific knowledge – to complement each other, it can result in a more detailed understanding of a botanical species, as they both present us with information about slightly different characteristics. In a rapidly changing world, we need as much collaboration as necessary to allow for resiliency. / Graduate / 0326 / 0309 / arbutus@uvic.ca

Human-induced land degradation and climate change can reduce agricultural productivity and increase susceptibility to food shortages at local and global scales. Planting perennial crop species, such as fruit and nut crops, may be an intervention strategy because of their beneficial contributions to sustainable agriculture and human nutrition. Many perennial temperate fruit and nut species are however, particularly vulnerable to frost events, drought, insufficient chill hours, and disease and insect outbreaks. Modifying these species to yield harvests under a wider range of biotic and abiotic conditions may increase the value and long-term viability of perennials in agroecosystems. This dissertation examines adaptation and ecogeography in temperate perennial fruit crops, using apple (Malus sensu lato) as an example for case studies. The resilience of feral domestic apple trees in abandoned farmstead orchards throughout the southwestern U.S. indicates plasticity in adapting to local environmental conditions. Dendrochronology reveals these trees tend to persist where they have access to supplemental water, either as shallow groundwater or irrigation. While domestic apples are cultivated under a range of growing conditions, wild relatives of agricultural crops may further expand the cultivable range of the species. Crop wild relatives are species closely related to agricultural species, including progenitors that may contribute beneficial traits to crops. Sampling the genetic variation in crop wild relatives may benefit from ecological genetics and GIS theory to reveal genetic structure. The Pacific crabapple is an example of a wild apple relative that may contain genetic variation useful in apple breeding. Species distribution modeling of the Pacific crabapple identifies a narrow climatic window of suitable habitat along the northern Pacific coast, and genetic fingerprinting reveals a highly admixed genetic structure with little evidence of natural or cultural selection. While the moist coastal Pacific Northwest is not necessarily characteristic of many apple-growing regions, the species may have useful adaptations transferable to domestic apples. Genetic resources offer a promising source of raw material for adapting crops to future agricultural environments; their characterization, conservation, and use may offer important contributions to adaptation and use of perennial crops in agro-ecosystems.