Aufgrund mangelnder Aktivität der Gewebe-unspezifischen Phosphatase (tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase, TNAP) kommt es zum Krankheitsbild der Hypophosphatasie (HPP). Neben skelettalen und neuronalen Symptomen leiden Patienten mit HPP häufig an einem vorzeitigen Verlust der Milchzähne und weiteren dentalen Manifestationen, wie Zahnhartsubstanzdefekten, Eruptionsstörungen, erweiterte Pulpenkammern oder einer verringerten alveolären Knochenhöhe. Ziel der Arbeit war es, den Einfluss der TNAP auf die Zahnentwicklung von Zebrafischlarven zu untersuchen, um ein neues in-vivo Modell für die dentalen Auswirkungen bei Hypophosphatasie etablieren zu können. Um die sehr kleinen Zähne der Zebrafischlarven auch in frühen Entwicklungsstadien darzustellen, wurden mittels verschiedener histologischer Färbungen die Zahnstrukturen angefärbt und die Larven danach in JB4®, einen polymeren Kunststoff, eingebettet. Im Anschluss wurden histologische Schnitte angefertigt und am Fluoreszenzmikroskop ausgewertet. Einerseits konnte durch In-situ-Hybridisierung die Expression verschiedener Gene, wie z.B. alpl (welches für die Tnap im Zebrafisch kodiert), im Bereich von dentalen Strukturen in verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien nachgewiesen werden. Außerdem zeigte die Analyse der dentalen Strukturen nach Inhibition der Tnap mittels Levamisol bei fünf Tage alten Zebrafischlarven eine Veränderung von Form, Größe und Struktur der ersten Zähne. Die TNAP-Inhibition führte auch zur quantitativ nachweisbaren Steigerung des Fluoreszenzsignals von ß-Catenin, welches eine zentrale Funktion im Wnt/ß-Catenin-Signalweg besitzt und essenziell in verschiedenen zellulären Prozessen während der Embryogenese ist. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse der Arbeit, dass der Zebrafisch großes Potenzial als in-vivo Modell für die dentalen Symptome bei HPP bietet. Außerdem eröffnen sich neue interessante Fragen in Bezug auf den Einfluss von ß-Catenin bei den frühen pathophysiologischen Prozessen der Erkrankung. / Lack of activity of the tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase, TNAP, can result in the clinical manifestation of hypophosphatasia (HPP). Besides skeletal and neuronal symptoms, patients with HPP often suffer from premature loss of deciduous teeth and other dental manifestations, e.g. defects in tooth structure, eruption disorders, widened pulp chambers, or decreased alveolar bone height. The aim of this work was to investigate the influence of TNAP (Tnap) on tooth development in zebrafish larvae and to investigate the possibility to establish a new in-vivo model for the dental effects in hypophosphatasia. To visualize the very small teeth of zebrafish even at early developmental stages, tooth structures were stained with different histological staining methods and larvae were subsequently embedded in JB4®, a polymeric resin. Afterwards, histological sections were prepared from embedded specimen and evaluated on the fluorescence microscope. Coloration of mRNA transcripts by in-situ-hybridization marked the expression of different genes, e.g. alpl (which encodes Tnap in zebrafish), within the area of dental structures at different developmental stages. Further analysis of dental structures after inhibition of Tnap by levamisole incubation showed changes in the shape, size and structure of teeth in five-day-old zebrafish larvae. In addition, after inhibition of Tnap there was a quantitatively detectable increase in the fluorescent signal of ß-catenin, which has a central function in the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway and in a wide number of cellular processes during embryogenesis. In summary, the presented results of this work show that the zebrafish offers great potential as an in-vivo model for dental symptoms in HPP. It also raises interesting questions regarding the influence of ß-catenin in the early pathophysiological processes of the disease.

Protein tyrosine kinase and phosphatase domains have binding specificities that depend on the amino acid sequence surrounding the target (phospho)tyrosine residue on their substrates. Although the preferred recognition motifs of many kinase and phosphatase domains have been characterized, we lack a quantitative description of sequence specificity that could guide predictions about signaling pathways or be used to design sequences for biomedical applications. Here, we present a platform that combines genetically-encoded peptide libraries and deep sequencing to profile sequence recognition by tyrosine kinases. We screened several tyrosine kinases against a million-peptide random library and used the resulting profiles to design high-activity sequences and predict phosphorylation efficiencies of substrates. We then screened several kinases against a library containing thousands of human proteome-derived peptides and their naturally-occurring variants. These screens recapitulated independently measured phosphorylation rates and revealed hundreds of phosphosite-proximal mutations that impact phosphosite recognition by tyrosine kinases. Finally, we have made progress towards extending this platform to the analysis of tyrosine phosphatase domains, by optimizing methods to produce tyrosine-phosphorylated bacterial display libraries and implementing methods to detect peptide dephosphorylation on the cell surface. Collectively, these experiments demonstrate the utility of our platform for rapid profiling of sequence specificity by tyrosine kinases and will shed new light on phosphotyrosine signaling.

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Regulation of gene expression is known to be a critical factor involved in proper development, responses to environmental cues, metabolism, energy conservation, and disease. Gene expression is regulated at several levels including transcription, mRNA splicing, post translational modification, and the rate of protein degradation. The developmental control of <i>alkaline phosphatase</i> (alp) in <i>Dicytostelium</i> has provided a focal point for the study of gene regulation at the level of <i>de novo</i> synthesis. The localization of <i>alkaline phosphatase</i> (alp) expression during development was characterized by fusing the 5' flanking sequence to the <i>lacZ</i> reporter and using an <i>in situ</i> β-galactosidase staining method. The localization of </i>lacZ</i> expression corresponds with that of the endogenous ALP enzyme suggesting that <i>alp</i> is regulated at the level of transcription. In order to identify temporal regulatory elements within the <i>alp</i> promoter a series of 5' and internal promoter deletions were generated and fused to the <i>lacZ</i> reporter. The data from these promoter deletion constructs indicated a regulatory element within the -683 to -468 bp sequence that is required for normal expression of <i>alp</i> during development. A series of small internal and 5' promoter deletions were designed within the -683 to -468 bp regulatory sequence. The results from these promoter deletion-reporter gene fusions suggested a DNA regulatory element is located within a 26-bp sequence beginning at the -620 bp site. The function of <i>cis</i>-acting regulatory elements were evaluated using the electromobility shift assay (EMSA) to identify sequence specific DNA-protein interactions on the <i>alp promoter</i>. We report the characterization of three DNA-binding activities with the 20% ammonium sulfate (AS) slug nuclear fraction. These DNA-binding activities appear to be related as they all require magnesium or calcium for effective binding to the <i>alp</i> promoter. Interestingly, the DNA-binding proteins appeared to interact with a GT-rich sequence that contained a G-box binding factor (GBF) consensus element. Additionally, a DNA-binding activity observed in the 80% AS slug nuclear extract was characterized and sequentially purified using conventional and affinity chromatography techniques. The DNA-binding protein was identified as TFII, a protein that was previously identified during the investigation of <i>glycogen phosphorylase-2 (gp2)</i> regulation. A comparison of the <i>alp</i> and <i>gp2</i> probes used to identify TFII suggests a DNA-binding site, ACAATGN₈₋₁₂CACTA. The ability of TFII to bind specifically with the promoter of two functionally different genes suggests that it may regulate the temporal and/or spatial expression of several <i>Dictyostelium</i> genes. / Ph. D.

Chemotaxis is the ability of an organism to sense its environment and move towards attractants and away from repellents. The two-component system controlling chemotaxis in bacteria contains a histidine kinase CheA, which is autophosphorylated in response to a signal from a ligand-bound transmembrane methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein. CheA transfers the phosphate group to its cognate response regulator which modulates flagellar rotation. Signal termination by dephosphorylation of the response regulator is necessary for the organism to react rapidly to changes in the environment. The phosphorylated response regulator CheY in <i>Escherichia coli</i> is dephosphorylated by CheZ, a phosphatase; certain organisms, such as <i>Sinorhizobium meliloti</i>, that lack a CheZ homolog have developed alternate methods of signal termination. The signaling chain of S. meliloti contains two response regulators, CheY1 and CheY2, in which CheY2 modulates flagellar rotation and CheY1 causes signal termination by acting as a phosphate sink. In addition to known chemotaxis components, the second gene in the chemotaxis operon of <i>S. meliloti</i> codes a 97 amino acid protein, called CheS. The phenotype of a cheS deletion strain is similar to that of a cheY1 deletion strain. Therefore, the possibility that CheS causes signal termination was explored in this work. The derived amino acid sequence of CheS showed similarities with its orthologs from other °-proteobacteria. Sequence conservation was highest at the centrally located °4 and °5 helices. Earlier observations that CheS localizes at the polar chemotaxis cluster in a CheA-dependent manner were confirmed, and the co-localization of CheS with CheA was demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy. The stable expression of CheS in the presence of CheA was confirmed by immunoblot. The same approach was used to establish the stable expression of CheS only in the presence of the P2 domain of CheA, but not with the P1 or P345 domains. Limited proteolysis followed by mass spectrometry defined CheA_163-256 as the CheS binding domain, and this domain overlapped the previously defined CheY2-binding domain, CheA_174-316. The role of CheS in the phosphate flux in S. meliloti chemotaxis was analyzed by assays using radio-labeled [?-?°P]ATP. CheS does not play a role in the autophosphorylation of CheA. However, CheS accelerated the rate of CheY1~P dephosphorylation by almost two-fold, but did not affect the rate of CheY2~P dephosphorylation. CheS also does not seem to affect phosphate flow in the retrophosphorylation from CheY2~P to CheA using acetyl [?°P]phosphate as phosphodonor. Since CheS increases the rate of CheY1 dephosphorylation, it can be envisioned that it either increases the association of CheY1 to CheA, increasing the flow of phosphate from CheA to CheY1, or directly accelerates the dephosphorylation of CheY1~P. The presence of a STAS domain and a conserved serine residue in CheS also raises the possibility that CheS may be phosphorylated by a yet unknown kinase, in a mechanism similar to the phosphorylation of <i>Bacillus subtilis</i> SpoIIAA by its cognate kinase SpoIIAB. Phosphorylated CheS may then switch CheA between a kinase or phosphotransferase ON/OFF state or activated CheS may directly interact with CheY1. Further studies are needed to determine the association of CheY1 with CheS to elucidate the mechanism of CheY1 dephosphorylation. This work has confirmed the <i>in vitro</i> association of CheS with CheA, determined the CheS binding domain on CheA, and indicated that CheS accelerates the dephosphorylation of CheY1~P. This has advanced our understanding of the role of CheS in the chemotaxis signaling chain of <i>S. meliloti</i>. / Master of Science

Lorsque l’insuline se lie à son récepteur, elle induit une cascade de réactions indispensables à l’utilisation du glucose. La résistance à l’insuline et le diabète de type 2 qui affectent une fraction croissante de la population résultent d’un défaut de signalisation de l’insuline. La voie de signalisation PI3K qu’emprunte l’insuline pour promouvoir l’utilisation du glucose est d’abord décrite en introduction de cette thèse. Aussi, il existe plusieurs mécanismes de désensibilisation qui sont essentiels pour limiter l’ampleur du signal à la réponse métabolique requise. Cependant, ces mécanismes sont altérables et de faibles dérèglements peuvent devenir responsables d’une propagation défaillante du signal insulinique. Les souris viable motheaten (mev), déficientes en activité SHP-1, nous ont permis au premier chapitre de démontrer que SHP-1 constitue un de ces mécanismes de désensibilisation. Ces souris montrent une plus grande tolérance au glucose et une meilleure sensibilité à l’insuline que les souris non-déficientes en SHP-1, ainsi qu’une meilleure signalisation de l’insuline dans le foie et le muscle squelettique. De plus, nous avons pu démontrer que SHP-1 contrôle aussi la clairance hépatique de l’insuline, importante pour réguler la concentration et la sensibilité systémique de l’insuline. Cette première étude a donc permis d’établir un nouveau rôle pour SHP-1 dans la régulation de l’action de l’insuline. Par la suite, il devenait primordial de décrire les mécanismes impliqués dans la sensibilisation à l’insuline par la déficience en SHP-1 dans le muscle et le foie. À l’aide d’adénovirus codant pour un mutant catalytiquement inerte de SHP-1 (DNSHP-1), nous rapportons au deuxième chapitre, par l’expression de DNSHP-1 dans les hépatocytes Fao, que la diminution de la production hépatique de glucose observée chez les souris mev résulte d’une augmentation de la glycogénèse plutôt que d’une diminution de la gluconéogenèse. Enfin, au dernier chapitre, DNSHP-1 exprimé dans les myocytes L6 favorise la signalisation via Akt, et accroît l’expression de GLUT4, le principal transporteur de glucose sensible à l’insuline. Ensemble, nos résultats suggèrent clairement que SHP-1 est un nouveau modulateur de l’action de l’insuline dans le foie et le muscle squelettique. SHP-1 pourrait donc représenter une nouvelle cible thérapeutique pour traiter le diabète de type 2. / After binding to its receptor, insulin induces a reaction cascade that is essential for glucose utilization. Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes are affecting an increasing portion of the population and result from insulin signaling impairment. Insulin signaling pathways promoting glucose utilization are reviewed in the introduction of the thesis, as well the desensitization mechanisms which are crucial to limit insulin signal duration and intensity. Viable motheaten (mev) mice, harboring a spontaneous mutation leading to SHP-1 activity deficiency, allowed us to demonstrate in chapter I that SHP-1 constitutes one of these desensitization mechanisms. Indeed, mev mice showed an increased glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity as compared to wild type littermates, resulting from increased insulin signaling in liver and skeletal muscle. Moreover, we show that SHP-1 controls hepatic insulin clearance, which is important to control systemic insulin concentration and sensitivity. This first study thus establishes a novel role for SHP-1 in the regulation of insulin action and glucose homeostasis. Thereafter, it became primordial to describe cell autonomous mechanisms by which SHP-1 enhances insulin sensitivity in liver and muscle. In the second chapter, expression of DNSHP-1 using adenoviral gene transfer into Fao rat hepatoma cells indicates that decreased hepatic glucose production observed in mev mice is likely the result of enhanced glycogenesis rather than reduced gluconeogenesis. Finally, I show in the last chapter that DNSHP-1 expression in myocytes increased insulin signaling to Akt, and increased GLUT4 expression, the main insulin responsive glucose transporter. Together, our results clearly establish that SHP-1 is a new modulator of insulin action in liver and skeletal muscle. SHP-1 may represent a novel therapeutic target to combat type 2 diabetes.

Tableau d'honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2016-2017. / L’obésité et ses complications telles le diabète et la stéatose hépatique non alcoolique sont des enjeux de santé qui prennent de plus en plus d’ampleur partout sur la planète et la compréhension approfondie des mécanismes physiopathologiques impliqués est essentielle pour mieux contrer ces maladies. La protéine peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) est reconnue pour ses propriétés antiinflammatoires, insulino-sensibilisantes et pro-adipogéniques. Des résultats antérieurs ont démontré qu’en l’absence de la protéine tyrosine phosphatase Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase- 1 (Shp1), l’activité de PPARγ est augmentée. L’activation de PPARγ par ses agonistes, les thiazolidinediones (TZD), est favorable au contrôle du diabète, mais entraîne certains effets indésirables. Nos recherches ont porté sur l’investigation d’une nouvelle voie de régulation de PPARγ. Nous avons montré que Shp1 et PPARγ interagissent et que PPARγ est phosphorylé sur ses résidus tyrosine. Les résultats suggèrent que la déphosphorylation de PPARγ par Shp1 diminue son activité. Des analyses de modélisation moléculaire suggèrent que cette interaction entre Shp1 et PPARγ dépend de la présence de phosphorylation sur un acide aminé particulier, la tyrosine 355. Ce même résidu est aussi important dans la liaison avec la rosiglitazone, médicament de la classe des TZD. Des expériences de mutagénèse ont montré que l’absence de phosphorylation sur la tyrosine 355 diminue grandement l’activité de la protéine et, qu’à l’inverse, la présence de phosphorylation tend à augmenter son activité. Bien que plusieurs modifications post-traductionnelles aient été décrites dans la littérature, la phosphorylation sur tyrosine de PPARγ demeure très peu étudiée. Nos résultats suggèrent une nouvelle voie de régulation de PPARγ qui pourrait mener à l’élaboration de nouveaux ligands qui exploitent ce mécanisme afin de favoriser les propriétés bénéfiques de ce facteur transcriptionnel pour mieux traiter le diabète de type 2 et diminuer les risques d’effets secondaires. / Obesity and its complications such as type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease are becoming worldwide health concerns and more insights into the underlying physiopathological mechanisms are necessary to improve the treatment of these conditions. Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) protein is well known for its anti-inflammatory, insulin sensitizing and pro-adipogenic roles. Previous results showed that in absence of the protein tyrosine phosphatase Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase-1 (Shp1), PPARγ activity is increased. PPARγ activation by thiazolidinediones (TZD) is used in the control of diabetes but is also linked to unwanted side effects. We investigated a new mechanism of regulation of PPARγ activity. We show that Shp1 and PPARγ interact and that PPARγ is tyrosine phosphorylated. Our results suggest that Shp1-mediated dephosphorylation of PPARγ reduces its activity. Molecular modeling analyses further suggest that the interaction between Shp1 and PPARγ depends upon the phosphorylation of one specific residue, tyrosine 355. This residue is also important for the binding with rosiglitazone, a member of the TZD drug class. Mutagenesis experiments showed that the absence of phosphorylation on tyrosine residue 355 decreases PPARγ activity, while its phosphorylation tends to increase it. Despite the fact that many post-translational modifications have been reported in the literature, tyrosine phosphorylation of PPARγ remains mostly unexplored. These results suggest a new PPARγ regulating mechanism that could be exploited to elaborate new PPARγ ligands to improve the treatment of type 2 diabetes and to limit side effects.

Leishmania est un parasite intracellulaire reconnu pour sa capacité à inhiber sa cellule hôte, le macrophage, et ainsi favoriser sa survie. Il parvient principalement à altérer des fonctions impliquées dans l’action microbicide du phagocyte (dont le monoxyde d’azote (NO)) ou dans la réponse immunitaire. On a associé ce phénomène à l’altération de plusieurs voies de signalisation de la cellule telles celles dépendantes du Ca2+, de la PKC, de JAK2/STAT1α et de ERK1/2. Il a précédemment été démontré que le parasite pouvait, en outre, induire l’activité des phosphotyrosines phosphatases (PTP) et plus spécialement celle de la PTP SHP-1. On reconnaît cette dernière comme un puissant inhibiteur de la signalisation cellulaire dépendante des tyrosines kinases. De plus, l’usage d’inhibiteurs de PTP a démontré l’importance de ces dernières dans la survie du parasite in vivo et in vitro. C’est pourquoi l’objectif de la présente thèse était de vérifier le rôle de la SHP-1 dans la survie du parasite in vivo et in vitro mais également dans l’inactivation du macrophage provoquée par l’infection. Pour ce faire, des souris déficientes en SHP-1, les viable motheaten, et des macrophages dérivés de celles-ci ont été infectés par Leishmania. In vivo, l’infection et l’inflammation chez les souris déficientes en SHP-1 étaient quasi inexistantes, grâce à l’action des cellules inflammatoires, surtout les neutrophiles, et à l’augmentation de la production de NO. Ce recrutement inflammatoire accru était causé par l’élévation des taux de cytokines pro-inflammatoires et de chimiokines. In vitro, l’absence de la SHP-1 empêchait la survie du parasite selon des mécanismes dépendants et indépendants de la production de NO. Le rôle de la SHP-1 dans l’inhibition de cette production se situait au niveau de l’inactivation des kinases JAK2 et ERK1/2 et des facteurs de transcription NF-κB et AP-1. Par contre, l’inactivation spécifique du facteur de transcription STAT1α ne dépendait pas de l’activité de la SHP-1 mais plutôt de celle des protéasomes cellulaires. En définitive, cette thèse démontre que l’activation de la SHP-1 est essentielle à la survie de Leishmania et à sa propagation, mais qu’il parvient également à inactiver le macrophage en favorisant la dégradation de STAT1α par les protéasomes. / The intracellular protozoan parasite Leishmania has been known for its ability to evade its host immune response principally by inhibiting phagocyte functions. Indeed, infected macrophages show a loss of microbicidal (NO, oxygen intermediates) and immunological activities (IL-1, IL-12, MHC). This allows for its replication and invasion of the host. These dysfunctions are correlated by alterations in signalling cascades depending on Ca2+, PKC, JAK2/STAT1α and MAPK ERK1/2. It has also been reported that Leishmania infection could induce the macrophage phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP) activity and more specifically that of PTP SHP-1, a strong negative regulator of tyrosine kinase-dependent pathways. Moreover, the use of PTP inhibitors showed their essential role in parasite survival both in vivo and in vitro. These results suggested a potential role for SHP-1 in parasite survival and in the inhibition of macrophages. To address this issue, SHP-1-deficient mice, the viable motheaten mice, and their bone marrow-derived macrophages were infected with Leishmania. Results show that footpad inflammation was virtually absent in SHP-1-deficient mice and depended on inducible nitric oxide synthase increased activity as well as inflammatory cells recruitment, especially neutrophils. This recruitment seemed to be due to increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines expression and secretion and in chemokine gene expression. SHP-1-deficient mice had both more inflammatory cells numbers and a higher ratio of neutrophils, recognized for their microbicidal action against Leishmania. In vitro, SHP-1 activity seemed essential for parasite survival by allowing the attenuation of NO-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Furthermore, its alteration of NO generation in infected cells was due to the dephosphorylation of JAK2 and ERK1/2 as well as inhibition of transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1. However, SHP-1 was not responsible for the inhibition of transcription factor STAT1α seen in infected macrophages. This phenomenon seemed due to specific proteasomal degradation of the protein. Overall, the present thesis demonstrates that Leishmania is a versatile parasite able to use several strategies to alter its host responsiveness, two of them being the essential activation of SHP-1 and the targeting of STAT1α to the proteasomal degradation pathway.