The most promising technology for radiography is active matrix flat panel imaging systems (AMFPI). However, AMFPI systems are relatively expensive in comparison with conventional computed radiography (CR) systems. Therefore for general radiography applications low cost systems are needed, especially in hospitals and healthcare systems of the developing countries. The focus of this research is the fabrication and characterization of a low cost amorphous silicon metal-semiconductor-metal photodetector as a photosensitive element in a AMFPI systems. Metal-Semiconductor-Metal photodetectors (MSM-PD) are attractive as sensors due to their ease of fabrication and compatibility with thin film transistor fabrication process primarily because there is no p+ doped layer in comparison with conventional p-i-n photodiodes. We have reported low dark current lateral a-Si MSM-PD (lower than 20pA/mm2 ) with responsivity of 280mA/W and EQE of 65 percent to green light ( l = 525nm). These improvement are achieved by introduction of a PI blocking layer and operating the device at high electric field (15 V/µm). This new structure eliminates the need of p+ and n+ layers which makes this structure fully compatible with the a-Si:H TFT fabrication process and consequently a low cost flat panel imager. Further, in this study we have investigated the effect of the spacing and width of the comb structure in the proposed lateral a-Si MSM-PD to determine the best configuration. Moreover, a-Si MSM-PD with PI blocking layer shows a linear behaviour to the photon flux in the wide range of 200nW/cm2 - 300µW/cm2 intensity of the incoming light. In comparison to vertical p-i-n structures, the reported MSM lateral device shows gains in terms of dynamic range, ease of fabrication (no p+ layer) without any deterioration in EQE and responsivity. This results are promising and encourage the development of a-Si lateral MSM-PD for indirect conversion large area medical imaging applications and especially low cost flat.

The physics and technology of the heterojunction infrared photodetectors having different material systems have been studied extensively. Devices used in this study have been characterized by using mainly optical methods, and electrical measurements have been used as an auxiliary method. The theory of internal photoemission in semiconductor heterojunctions has been investigated and the existing model has been extended by incorporating the effects of the difference in the effective masses in the active region and the substrate, nonspherical-nonparabolic bands, and the energy loss per collisions. The barrier heights (correspondingly the cut-off wavelengths) of SiGe/Si samples have been found from their internal photoemission spectrums by using the complete model which has the wavelength and doping concentration dependent free carrier absorption parameters. A qualitative model describing the mechanisms of photocurrent generation in SiGe/Si HIP devices has been presented. It has been shown that the performance of our devices depends significantly on the applied bias and the operating temperature. Properties of internal photoemission in a PtSi/Si Schottky type infrared detector have also been studied. InGaAs/InP quantum well photodetectors that covers both near and mid-infrared spectral regions by means of interband and intersubband transitions have been studied. To understand the high responsivity values observed at high biases, the gain and avalanche multiplication processes have been investigated. Finally, the results of a detailed characterization study on a systematic set of InAs/GaAs self-assembled quantum dot infrared photodetectors have been presented. A simple physical picture has also been discussed to account for the main observed features.

Depuis la fin des années 2000 les capteurs d’images CMOS éclairés par la face arrière (Back-Side-Illuminated) prennent le pas sur les capteurs traditionnels éclairés par la face avant (Front-Side-Illuminated). Cette technologie présente l’avantage de simplifier le chemin optique jusqu’à la photodiode et permet notamment d’accroitre le rendement quantique. Dans le même temps à l’instar des technologies CMOS ce changement permet de réduire la dimension des pixels dans le plan. Ce changement entraine cependant l’apparition d’une nouvelle interface sur la face arrière des pixels qu’il faut maitriser car elle peut être une source de courant d’obscurité, phénomène qu’il faut réduire pour obtenir des capteurs performants. Pour limiter ce phénomène, il faut limiter l’émission d’électrons parasites par les défauts d’interface que l’on cherche à passiver. Deux moyens existent, la passivation chimique qui consiste à réduire la densité de défauts à l’interface et la passivation par effet de champ qui consiste à introduire des charges dans la couche de passivation. Pour ce faire, ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans le développement d’un empilement SiO2 / HfO2 ou Al2O3 / Ta2O5 dont les oxydes métalliques sont déposés par ALD et PEALD. Les objectifs de ces travaux sont de comprendre l’origine et la nature des défauts dans les oxydes métalliques afin d’améliorer les propriétés de passivation de l’empilement. La nature des couches utilisées, les paramètres de dépôt ainsi que l’impact du recuit sont étudiés en détail à partir de la technique de mesures COCOS permettant d’extraire la densité de défauts d’interface et la charge totale de l’empilement. D’autres techniques de caractérisation physico-chimique complémentaires telles que les mesures infrarouges sont utilisées et permettent d’identifier les modifications chimiques de l’empilement. / Since the late 2000s back-side-illuminated CMOS image sensors have taken precedence over traditional Front-Side Illuminated sensors. This technology has the advantage of simplifying the optical path to the photodiode and particularly increases the quantum efficiency. At the same time, like CMOS technologies, this change allows the reduction of the size of the pixels in the plane. However, this change causes the appearance of a new interface on the back side of the pixels. The presence of an additional interface implies a new source of dark current that must be reduced to the maximum to maintain high performance. This interface has to be passivated to minimize the generation of parasitic electrons. Two means exist, the chemical passivation which consists of reducing the density of defects at the interface and the field effect passivation which consist of introducing charges into the passivation layer. To do this, this thesis work is part of the development of a SiO2 / HfO2 or Al2O3 / Ta2O5 stack whose metal oxides are deposited by ALD and PEALD. The purpose of this work is to understand the origin and the nature of defects in metal oxides in order to improve the passivation properties of the stack. The nature of the layers used, the deposition parameters and the impact of the annealing are studied in detail from the COCOS measurement technique making it possible to extract the density of interface defects and the total charge of the stack. Other complementary physicochemical characterization techniques such as infrared measurements have been used to identify chemical changes in the stack.

[pt] No ano de 2014, o Brasil ocupou o quinto lugar no ranking mundial de produção de leite. No entanto, a produtividade média foi baixa, comparada aos outros grandes produtores. A avaliação da qualidade do leite é importante para melhorar a produtividade, pois ela auxilia na identificação de fatores que prejudicam a produção. As quantidades de proteína e gordura no leite são utilizadas como critérios de qualidade e, geralmente, medidas por equipamentos baseados em técnicas de espectroscopia no infravermelho. Esses equipamentos possuem alto custo e são adequados somente para uso em laboratório. Este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar o uso de fotodetectores baseados em nanoestruturas na quantificação da proteína do leite, visando um dispositivo portátil e de baixo custo. Para isso, técnicas de espectroscopia no infravermelho foram utilizadas no estudo do leite, da sua proteína e de algumas adulterações. A resposta dos fotodetectores (corrente) também foi analisada através da espectroscopia no infravermelho. Finalmente, uma simulação experimental do dispositivo completo foi feita e os resultados comparados com os estudos de espectroscopia. Com base nessas comparações, constatou-se a viabilidade de se utilizar os fotodetectores baseados em nanoestruturas na quantificação da proteína do leite. / [en] In 2014, Brazil occupied the fifth position in the world ranking of milk production. However, the average productivity was small compared to the other major producers. Quality evaluation is important for improving milk productivity, as it helps to identify factors that hinder production. The quantities of protein and fat in milk are used as quality standards, and they are usually measured with instruments based on infrared spectroscopy techniques. These devices are expensive and they are only suitable for laboratory use. This study intends to evaluate the application of photodetectors based on nanostructures in the quantification of milk protein, aiming at the production of a portable and inexpensive device. In order to accomplish this, infrared spectroscopy techniques were used in the study of milk, protein and milk adulteration. The photodetectors response (current) was also analyzed by infrared spectroscopy. Later, an experimental simulation of the final device was done and the results were compared with the spectroscopy studies. Given these relations, it was found that photodetectors based on nanostructures can be used in the quantification of milk protein.

Photodetectors are used in many applications such as digital and thermal cameras or in solar panels. They can also be designed to detect the omnipresent high-energy radiation/particles, and for radiation imaging in biomedical applications. Novel nanostructures offer significant advantages compared to traditional designs for the realization of fast, sensitive, compact and cheap sensors and efficient solar cells. Examples of such nanostructures include quantum dots (QDs), quantum wells (QWs) and NW arrays. This thesis is devoted to experimental investigations of effects of high-energy (1 MeV) protons on the optical and electrical performance of InP/InAsP NW-based QDiscs-in wire photodetectors. The proton-induced degradation of the optical performance has been studied by means of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) photocurrent spectroscopy. The spectrally resolved photocurrent (PC) and current-voltage (I-V) characteristics were measured at low temperature (5 K and 77K) and at room temperature (300K) before and after 1 MeV proton irradiation under vacuum conditions with fluences ranging from 1.0×1012–3.0×1013 cm-2. The particle radiation exposure has been done in the Ion Beam Accelerator at the Department of Nuclear Physics Department at Lund University. Considering both PC and I-V characteristics, it was found that the devices were sensitive to all proton irradiation at all fluences. In general, the PC intensity significantly increased after radiation for all fluences, however, a week after exposure the PC and dark current gradually recovered. At 3×1012 p/cm2 fluence level, it was figured out that photocurrent which attributed to QDiscs disappeared for a couple of days after exposure, however, over time and gradually, those started to manifest again even at low and room temperatures, causing radiation-induced changes in device parameters to be time-dependent; however, it was not recorded any signals related to QDiscs at fluence of 3×1013 p/cm2. Substantial changes in the dark I-V characteristics, as well as increases in the dark current, are observed after irradiation. The influence of proton irradiation on light and dark current characteristics also indicated that NW structures are a good potential candidate for radiation harsh-environment applications. It was also observed a significant increase in dark current after the radiation for all devices, however, by applying the voltage to the photodetectors, the PC and I-V characteristics gradually being to diminish, which may be attributed to an annealing process.

Neste trabalho desenvolvemos rotinas computacionais em Python para o cálculo de propriedades dinâmicas (espectros de fotocorrente e absorção) de heteroestruturas semicondutoras baseadas em Dinâmica Quântica. Em uma primeira etapa do desenvolvimento do projeto, a formulação baseada na evolução temporal das soluções da equação de Schrödinger dependente do tempo foi aplicada a sistemas com soluções analíticas conhecidas ou com resultados já reportados na literatura. Devido à excelente concordância entre nossos dados e aqueles já conhecidos, em uma etapa seguinte, foram calculadas as energias de transição observadas em espectros de fotoluminescência para poços quânticos de InGaAs/GaAs, crescidos por MBE, levando-se em conta os efeitos de tensão e segregação de átomos de índio. Na continuidade do projeto, especial atenção foi dada ao desenvolvimento de estratégias para calcular os espectros de absorção e fotocorrente para dispositivos do Estado Sólido. O conjunto de resultados apresentados neste trabalho demonstra que a metodologia desenvolvida é precisa e pode ser utilizada com baixo custo computacional para o modelamento de heteroestruturas semicondutoras mais complexas, que servem de base para o desenvolvimento de dispositivos optoeletrônicos. / In this work we developed computational routines in Python for the calculation of the dynamic properties (spectrum of photocurrent and absorption) of semiconductor heterostructures based on Quantum Dynamics Theory. In a first stage of the development of the project the formulation based on the time evolution of the solutions of the time dependent Schrödinger equation was applied to systems with known analytical solutions or results already reported in the literature. Due to the excellent agreement between our data and those already known, in the next stage the transition energies observed in photoluminescence spectra for InGaAs/GaAs quantum wells, grown by MBE, were calculated taking into account the effects of stress and segregation of indium atoms. In the continuity of the project, special attention was given to the development of strategies to calculate absorption and photocurrent spectra for solid state devices. The set of results presented in this work demonstrates that the methodology developed is accurate and can be used with low computational cost for the modeling of more complex semiconductor heterostructures, which are used for the development of optoelectronic devices.

Orientador: Jacobus Willibrordus Swart / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-05T07:19:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Goes_MarcosAugustode_M.pdf: 31444750 bytes, checksum: e7c5cce48b9c9ec73f1804fee26b6062 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Resumo: Esta dissertação de mestrado descreve o estudo, projeto e implementação de um receptor optoeletrônico integrado (OEIC) utilizando a tecnologia de transistores bipolares de heterojunção (HBT), fabricados a partir do material semicondutor arseneto de gálio. A grande vantagem deste transistor é o seu alto ganho e baixa resistência de base, o qual possibilita operações na faixa de gigahertz. A integração do estágio de fotodetecção, feita por um fotodiodo do tipo PIN, com o circuito de amplificação em um mesmo circuito integrado é possível, pois o fotodetector é construído com as camadas de base, coletor e subcoletor do transistor HBT. Com isso, as resistências, capacitâncias e indutâncias parasitas presentes na conexão entre estes dois estágios são minimizadas. Isto permite aos receptores monolíticos trabalharem em freqüências mais altas em relação aos receptores híbridos. O circuito fabricado opera com fontes de luz no comprimento de onda de 850 nm e pode ser utilizado em redes locais de curta distância (LAN) / Abstract: This master degree dissertation describes the study, project and implementation of an optoelectronic integrated circuit (OEIC) using the heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBT) technology over a gallium arsenide substrate. The major advantage of this transistor is its high gain and low base resistance, allowing operation at frequencies in the range of gigahertz. The integration of the photodetection stage, performed by a PIN photodetector, with the amplifier circuit in a single chip is possible because the photodetector is built from the base, collector and subcollector layers of the HBT transistor. Thus, the parasitic resistances, capacitances and inductances between the connection of these two stages are minimized. In this way, monolithic receivers can operate at higher frequencies than hybrid receivers. The fabricated circuit is intended to work with 850 nm light sources and can be used in local area networks (LAN) / Mestrado / Eletrônica, Microeletrônica e Optoeletrônica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

[FR] Les travaux de thèse s'inscrivent dans le contexte d'une évaluation de la fiabilité de matrices de phototransistors bipolaires en technologie silicium pour des applications de codage optique angulaire en environnement spatial. Après un état de l'art relatif aux technologies des phototransistors et un rappel sur leur fonctionnement physique, les conditions environnementales spécifiques liées au domaine spatial sont décrites. La caractérisation des paramètres électro-optiques des phototransistors, associée à une phase préliminaire de métrologie, a été effectuée à partir de bancs dédiés. L'étude de la sensibilité aux charges mobiles de technologies issues de différents fondeurs, habituellement piégées aux interfaces et identifiée comme un mécanisme fortement pénalisant en terme de durée de vie opérationnelle, a permis d'optimiser et fiabiliser une nouvelle source européenne. Une méthodologie originale basée sur le concept des plans d'expérience « D-optimal » a été mise en œuvre et validée. L'objectif est d'estimer le taux de dégradation d'un ou de plusieurs paramètres clés du composant en fonction des conditions environnementales imposées par l'orbite de rotation du satellite à partir d'un nombre limité d'expériences réalisées au sol. / [EN] The research activities presented in this thesis are related to the specific contextof the qualification tests, for space missions, of new sources of silicon phototransistor arraysfor optical angular encoders. Our studies on a first source revealed the fragility of thattechnology in active storage and ionizing radiation because of its sensitivity to oxidestrapped charges. Then, a study on a second set of components was performed in order toanalyze the reliability of phototransistors subjected to several constraints in terms of bothionizing and displacement doses. The methodology of “Design of Experiments” was for thefirst time implemented and validated in this context. Thanks to this methodology, it ispossible to obtain an estimate of the degradation of one or more key parameters of thecomponent in environmental conditions for a given mission profile with a limited number ofexperiments. / [IT] Il lavoro di tesi s’inscrive nel contesto particolare della valutazione dell'affidabilità di matrici di fototransistor in tecnologia bipolare in silicio per applicazioni di codifica ottica angolare in ambiente spaziale. Dopo uno stato dell’arte riguardante le tecnologie di fototransistor, una breve descrizione dell’applicazione per cui i dispositivi studiati sono intesi, ed infine un richiamo sul loro funzionamento fisico, vengono descritte le condizioni ambientali specifiche legate al settore spaziale. La caratterizzazione dei parametri elettro-ottici dei fototransistor, associata ad una fase preliminare di metrologia, è stata effettuata a partire da banchi dedicati. Lo studio della sensibilità di diversi design di fototransistor agli effetti di cariche mobili intrappolate alle interfacce ossido-silicio, di solito identificata come un meccanismo fortemente penalizzante in termini di durata di vita operativa del dispositivo, ha permesso d'ottimizzare e accrescere l’affidabilità di fototransistor di un nuovo fabbricante europeo. Una metodologia originale basata sul concetto dei piani d'esperienza “D-optimal” è stata attuata e convalidata. L'obiettivo è di ottenere il tasso di degradazione di uno o più parametri chiave del dispositivo in funzione delle condizioni ambientali imposte dall'orbita in cui il satellite si troverà a operare, e a partire da un numero limitato d'esperienze realizzate a terra.

Dans cette thèse, deux semi-conducteurs en séléniure ayant d'excellentes propriétés ont été étudiés afin de développer des matériaux performants pour des applications photoélectriques. Tout d'abord, les nanorodes de Sb2Se3 ont été synthétisés en utilisant une méthode d'injection à chaud, et le plus grand défi associé à la faible conductivité de Sb2Se3 a été relevé en formant des hétérojonctions et/ou par un dopage. Les nanorodes de Sb2Se3 à conductivité électrique nettement améliorée ont été utilisés pour fabriquer des photo-détecteurs prototypes, qui présentent un grand potentiel d'application grâce à leur grande efficacité. Le Sb2Se3 dopés au Sn a été préparé en utilisant un procédé de fusion à haute température. Avec l'augmentation de la concentration en Sn, les cristaux (SnxSb1-x)2Se3 présentent également une grande amélioration de la conductivité et des propriétés photoconductrices. Quatre cibles à base de Sb2Se3 avec la composition chimique de Sb2Se3, Sb2Se3.3, (Sn0.1Sb0.9)2Se3 et Sb2(Se0.9I0.1)3 ont été préparées et les couches minces ont été déposées en utilisant la pulvérisation cathodique. Une étude systématique de la cristallinité, de la morphologie de surface, des propriétés optiques, du type de conduction (p ou n) et des performances photo-électro-chimique des couches minces a été réalisée. Une nouvelle cellule solaire à couches minces de Sb2Se3 avec une quasi-homojonction a été fabriquée pour la première fois et le rendement de conversion atteint déjà un taux très intéressant de 2,65%. Une méthode efficace d'injection à chaud a également été développée pour la synthèse de nano-fleurs uniformes de γ-In2Se3. Une photodiode à hétérojonction formée en déposant une couche mince de nanoflower γ-In2Se3, du type p, sur un substrat en Si de type n, a été fabriquée pour la première fois. Il a été démontré que ce photo-détecteur peut être auto-alimenté avec d'excellentes performances, notamment une réponse rapide et une sensibilité à large bande. / In this dissertation, two different selenide semiconductors with excellent properties have been studied in order to develop high performance materials and devices for photoelectric applications. Firstly, Sb2Se3 nanorods were synthesized via hot-injection method, and the biggest challenge of low conductivity of Sb2Se3 nanorods has been overcome successfully by forming heterojunction and/or doping. The Sb2Se3 nanorods with enhanced electrical conductivity were used for fabricating prototype photodetectors, which show great application potential as highly efficient photodetectors. The Sn-doped Sb2Se3 crystals were successfully prepared by using high-temperature melting process. With increasing Sn doping concentration, the (SnxSb1-x)2Se3 crystals also exhibit a great improvement of conductivity and photoconductive properties. Four Sb2Se3-based targets with the chemical composition of Sb2Se3, Sb2Se3.3, (Sn0.1Sb0.9)2Se3 and Sb2(Se0.9I0.1)3 have been successfully prepared by using high-temperature melting technique. Then thin films have been deposited by using RF magnetron-assisted sputtering. A systematic investigation of the crystallinity, surface morphology, optical properties, p/n type and photo-electro-chemical performance of the thin films has been performed. A novel quasi-homojunction Sb2Se3 thin film solar cells was fabricated for the first time and the highest conversion efficiency obtained in our work reaches already a highly interesting 2.65%. An effective hot-injection method has also been developed for synthesizing uniform γ-In2Se3 nanoflowers. An efficient heterojunction photodiode formed by n-type Si substrate and p-type γ-In2Se3 nanoflower film was fabricated for the first time. It has been demonstrated that this photodetector can be self-powered with excellent performance including fast response and broadband sensibility.

<p>Thin film photovoltaic materials have garnered much interest recently due to their processability in addition to good properties for conversion of solar photons to usable energy. Amine-thiol chemistry has shown the ability to produce solution processed materials such as Cu₂ZnSn(S,Se)₄ (CZTSSe), a thin film absorber composed of earth abundant metals. Using similar solution processing methods as those used to produce CZTS, we wish to synthesize a phase pure solution processed material from molecular precursors of metals and metal chalcogenides into an Ag₂ZnSnSe₄ absorber which lacks the electronic defects that plague CZTSSe. Additionally, we will utilize the reactive dissolution of metal in amine-thiol solution chemistry for a more detailed understanding of how metal-sulfur complexes form and then decompose into films, to gain insight about the conditions that produce stable solutions and high quality films for a better ability to optimize processing conditions. </p><p><br></p><p>We find we are able to individually dissolve zinc metal, tin metal, and silver sulfide precursors to produce solutions of metal thiolate complexes. Based on results from electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS)/ X-ray absorption near edge spectra (XANES) we propose that these structures contain thiolate molecules coordinated with Ag, Zn, and Sn in the +1, +2, and +2 oxidation states respectively. However, mixing these produces an AZTS solution which is only stable for 3 hours, due to a redox reaction between Ag⁺ and Sn²⁺ which forms Sn⁴⁺ and insoluble Ag metal. To solve this, we synthesize SnS₂ and show this produces a different Sn-thiolate complex with fully oxidized Sn⁴⁺. This is then used to produce the first stable AZTS solution, an essential step to fabricating reproducible films. We use this AZTS solution to fabricate films containing AZTS, and selenize these films in a tube furnace to produce films which contain AZTSe as well as secondary phases. We then use rapid thermal processing furnace to remove some of these secondary phases, and discuss ways to further improve our material quality.<br></p><p></p>