IL-12 family cytokines IL-23 and IL-27 play an important role linking innate and adaptive immunity, and regulating T-cell responses. The production of IL-12, a structurally similar cytokine, is decreased in chronic HIV infection; therefore IL-23 and IL-27 may also be influenced by HIV infection. I hypothesized that HIV inhibits LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in human MDMs by suppressing the activation of signalling pathways regulating their expression. In vitro HIV-infection of MDMs did not have any effect on basal secretion of IL-23 or IL-27; however, HIV inhibited LPS-induced production of IL-12/23 p40 and IL-23 p19, and IL-27 EBI3 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression, and IL-23, IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 secretion. In order to evaluate the molecular mechanisms by which HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 in LPS-stimulated MDMs, the signalling pathways regulating their expression were evaluated. The PI3K, p38 MAPK, and JNK MAPK pathways were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-27 secretion. Interestingly, in vitro HIV infection inhibited LPS-induced p38 and JNK MAPK activation in MDMs. In summary, I have shown that HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 production in LPS-stimulated MDMs and that HIV may inhibit LPS-induced IL-27 production through the inhibition of p38 and JNK MAPK activation. It is currently unknown whether PKCs regulate LPS-induced IL-23 or IL-27 in human monocytes/macrophages. I demonstrated that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 secretion within THP-1 cells, primary monocytes, and MDMs. Classical PKCs were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-12/23 p40, IL-23, and IL-27 secretion in primary human monocytes. Similarly, the classical PKCs were found to positively regulate IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-27 secretion in THP-1 cells. However, classical PKCs did not regulate LPS-induced IL-27 production in MDMs, or LPS-induced IL-23 production in THP-1 cells. Overall, this demonstrates that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in different myeloid cells.

Le paludisme constitue la première maladie parasitaire au monde, responsable d’environ 800 000 morts chaque année. Il peut entraîner plusieurs complications sévères aggravant le pronostique vital, et pouvant conduire à la mort. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif de ma thèse a été d'étudier, pour une majeur partie, la pathologie cérébrale et dans une moindre mesure la forme pulmonaire. Cette étude a plus particulièrement porté sur le rôle de certaines voies d’activation des lymphocytes T. Mes résultats ont mis en évidence la fonction primordiale, dans le développement du neuropaludisme, de trois molécules impliquées dans l’activation des cellules T : le récepteur LTβR, la protéine PKC-θ et la sous unité β2 du récepteur à l’IL-12. Grâce à l’utilisation d’un modèle murin délété en ces gènes, nous avons pu déterminer par des techniques non invasives (IRM, ARM) ou invasives (test de perméabilité vasculaire, cytométrie en flux) que ces souris étaient résistantes à la forme cérébrale. En revanche elles ne sont pas essentielles à la pathologie pulmonaire. / The malaria is the first parasitic pathology, responsible of 800 000 death a year. It can cause several severe complications which might deteriorating vital forecast and lead to the death. In this context, my thesis objective was to study, for major point, the cerebral pathology and in a lesser measure the lung pathology. This study concernes the role of some signaling pathways of T cells activation. My results show the involvement of three molecules in cerebral malaria development LTβR receptor, PKC-θ kinase and IL-12Rβ2 receptor subunit. With the use of knockout mice for these genes, we proved by non invasive approaches (MRI and MRA) or invasive approaches (vascular permeability test, flow cytometry) that these mice are resistant to cerebral malaria. By contrast they are not protected against lung pathology.

The voltage gated potassium channel Kv1.2 plays a key role in the central nervous system and mutations in Kv1.2 cause neurological disorders such as epilepsies and ataxias. In the cerebellum, regulation of Kv1.2 is coupled to learning and memory. We have previously shown that blocking Kv1.2 by infusing its specific inhibitor tityustoxin-kα (TsTX) into the lobulus simplex of the cerebellum facilitates eyeblink conditioning (EBC) and that EBC itself modulates Kv1.2 surface expression in cerebellar interneurons. The metabotropic glutamate receptor mGluR1 is required for EBC although the molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. Here we show that infusion of the mGluR1 agonist (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) into the lobulus simplex of the cerebellum mimics the facilitating effect of TsTX on EBC. We therefore hypothesize that mGluR1 could act, in part, through suppression of Kv1.2. Earlier studies have shown that Kv1.2 suppression involves channel tyrosine phosphorylation and endocytocytic removal from the cell surface. In this study we report that an excitatory chemical stimulus (50mM K+-100µM glutamate) applied to cerebellar slices enhanced Kv1.2 tyrosine phosphorylation and that this increase was lessened in the presence of the mGluR1 inhibitor YM298198. More direct evidence for mGluR1 modulation of Kv1.2 comes from our finding that selective activation of mGluR1 with DHPG reduced the amount of surface Kv1.2 detected by cell surface biotinylation in cerebellar slices. To determine the molecular pathways involved we used an unbiased mass spectrometry-based proteomics approach to identify Kv1.2-protein interactions that are modulated by mGluR1. Among the interactions enhanced by DHPG were those with PKC-γ, CaMKII, and Gq/G11, each of which had been shown in other studies to co-immunoprecipitate with mGluR1 and contribute to its signaling. Of particular note was the interaction between Kv1.2 and PKC-γ since in HEK cells and hippocampal neurons Kv1.2 endocytosis is elicited by PKC activation. We found that activation of PKCs with PMA reduced surface Kv1.2, while the PKC inhibitor Go6983 attenuated the reduction in surface Kv1.2 levels elicited by DHPG and PMA, suggesting that the mechanism by which mGluR1 modulates cerebellar Kv1.2 likely involves PKC. mGluR1 has been shown to signal independently of the agonist through a constitutively active, protein kinase A-dependent pathway in the cerebellum. Using HEK293 cells we show that co-expression of mGluR1 increases the surface expression levels of Kv1.2. This effect occurs in absence of mGluR1 agonists and in the presence of a noncompetitive mGluR1 inhibitor YM298198. Co-expression of known downstream effectors of the agonist driven mGluR1 pathway such as PKC-γ, CaMKIIα, Grid2 had no effect on Kv1.2 surface expression or on the ability of mGluR1 agonist to modulate that expression. In contrast, the inverse agonist BAY 36-7620 significantly reduced the mGluR1 effect on Kv1.2 surface expression, as did pharmacological inhibition of PKA with KT5720. Therefore, mGluR1 is involved in regulation of surface Kv1.2 via dual mechanisms, the agonist dependent mechanism reduces surface Kv1.2 via PKC, while agonist independent constitutive mechanism increases surface Kv1.2 via PKA.

IL-12 family cytokines IL-23 and IL-27 play an important role linking innate and adaptive immunity, and regulating T-cell responses. The production of IL-12, a structurally similar cytokine, is decreased in chronic HIV infection; therefore IL-23 and IL-27 may also be influenced by HIV infection. I hypothesized that HIV inhibits LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in human MDMs by suppressing the activation of signalling pathways regulating their expression. In vitro HIV-infection of MDMs did not have any effect on basal secretion of IL-23 or IL-27; however, HIV inhibited LPS-induced production of IL-12/23 p40 and IL-23 p19, and IL-27 EBI3 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression, and IL-23, IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 secretion. In order to evaluate the molecular mechanisms by which HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 in LPS-stimulated MDMs, the signalling pathways regulating their expression were evaluated. The PI3K, p38 MAPK, and JNK MAPK pathways were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-27 secretion. Interestingly, in vitro HIV infection inhibited LPS-induced p38 and JNK MAPK activation in MDMs. In summary, I have shown that HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 production in LPS-stimulated MDMs and that HIV may inhibit LPS-induced IL-27 production through the inhibition of p38 and JNK MAPK activation. It is currently unknown whether PKCs regulate LPS-induced IL-23 or IL-27 in human monocytes/macrophages. I demonstrated that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 secretion within THP-1 cells, primary monocytes, and MDMs. Classical PKCs were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-12/23 p40, IL-23, and IL-27 secretion in primary human monocytes. Similarly, the classical PKCs were found to positively regulate IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-27 secretion in THP-1 cells. However, classical PKCs did not regulate LPS-induced IL-27 production in MDMs, or LPS-induced IL-23 production in THP-1 cells. Overall, this demonstrates that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in different myeloid cells.

Although the mechanisms underlying the divergence of the first cell types in the mouse, the trophectoderm (TE) and the inner cell mass (ICM) have received considerable attention, the upstream signals stimulating their divergence are not well understood. The work presented here examines the roles that morphogenetic factors such as cell adhesion and polarization play in the development of these cell types. I show here that in embryos completely lacking both maternal and zygotic E-cadherin, the normal epithelial morphology of outer cells is disrupted but individual cells still initiate TE and ICM-like fates. A larger proportion of cells than normal expressed TE markers like Cdx2 (a homeodomain containing transcription factor), suggesting that formation of an organized epithelium is not necessary for TE-specific gene expression. Individual cells in such embryos still generate an apical-like domain that correlates with elevated Cdx2 expression. I also show that repolarization can occur in isolated early ICMs from both wild type and Cdx2 mutant embryos, indicating that Cdx2 is not required to initiate polarity. Importantly, I demonstrate a critical role for the Rho-associated kinase ROCK in apical-basal polarization of preimplantation blastomeres. Loss of apical-basal polarization leads to a reduction of Cdx2 expression in outer blastomeres due to activation of Lats1/2 kinase and reduced nuclear Yap1. The influence of polarization upon Lats1/2 kinase is stage-dependent however, as apolar 8-cell blastomeres retain nuclear Yap1. Cell position appears to serve as an additional cue for nuclear localization of Yap and Cdx2 expression from the 8-cell stage to E3.5. Cell polarization plays an additional role in the embryo of maintaining cells in consistently outer or inner positions, thus ensuring that Cdx2 is expressed exclusively in the developing TE. The results of this work demonstrate important links between morphogenesis, cell fate and patterning in the preimplantation embryo. Both cell polarization and cell position act as critical cues to determine gene expression and to pattern this expression within the embryo.

Although the mechanisms underlying the divergence of the first cell types in the mouse, the trophectoderm (TE) and the inner cell mass (ICM) have received considerable attention, the upstream signals stimulating their divergence are not well understood. The work presented here examines the roles that morphogenetic factors such as cell adhesion and polarization play in the development of these cell types. I show here that in embryos completely lacking both maternal and zygotic E-cadherin, the normal epithelial morphology of outer cells is disrupted but individual cells still initiate TE and ICM-like fates. A larger proportion of cells than normal expressed TE markers like Cdx2 (a homeodomain containing transcription factor), suggesting that formation of an organized epithelium is not necessary for TE-specific gene expression. Individual cells in such embryos still generate an apical-like domain that correlates with elevated Cdx2 expression. I also show that repolarization can occur in isolated early ICMs from both wild type and Cdx2 mutant embryos, indicating that Cdx2 is not required to initiate polarity. Importantly, I demonstrate a critical role for the Rho-associated kinase ROCK in apical-basal polarization of preimplantation blastomeres. Loss of apical-basal polarization leads to a reduction of Cdx2 expression in outer blastomeres due to activation of Lats1/2 kinase and reduced nuclear Yap1. The influence of polarization upon Lats1/2 kinase is stage-dependent however, as apolar 8-cell blastomeres retain nuclear Yap1. Cell position appears to serve as an additional cue for nuclear localization of Yap and Cdx2 expression from the 8-cell stage to E3.5. Cell polarization plays an additional role in the embryo of maintaining cells in consistently outer or inner positions, thus ensuring that Cdx2 is expressed exclusively in the developing TE. The results of this work demonstrate important links between morphogenesis, cell fate and patterning in the preimplantation embryo. Both cell polarization and cell position act as critical cues to determine gene expression and to pattern this expression within the embryo.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an interstitial lung disease leading to decreased lung volume and eventual respiratory failure. At present, the median post-diagnosis lifespan is between three and six years. Myofibroblasts are collagen-secreting cells essential for wound healing, but also implicated in the fibroproliferation and extra cellular matrix deposition commonly seen in IPF. The nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway is implicated in protomyofibroblast to myofibroblast transition and regulation. Previous work has shown that in pulmonary myofibroblasts, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is the primary NOS isoform expressed. The current study used cultured rat pulmonary myofibroblasts between passages two and five as a cell model. The cells were grown in normal growth media (DMEM + 10% FBS) or serum starved (DMEM + 0% FBS) to induce cellular differentiation. In this study, immunocytochemistry was used to show localization of eNOS is dependent on cellular differentiation, with protomyofibroblasts expressing eNOS primarily in the nucleus and protomyofibroblasts expressing eNOS in the perinuclear region. We also show catalytic activity and localization of eNOS are correlated by visualizing nitric oxide production in the cells using a permeable fluorescein chromophore. By using western blot analysis on fractionated cell lysates we found eNOS expressed in the nucleus under normal growth conditions. eNOS is at least partially regulated by intracellular calcium (Ca2+) and calmodulin (CaM). Western blot analysis using native eNOS and phospho-specific eNOS antibodies on fractionated cells treated with the protein kinase C (PKC) activator phorbal 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) with and without addition of its antagonist ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA) was conducted to investigate PKC’s role in eNOS regulation by phosphorylation. Indeed, PKC activation was found to mitigate expression in the nucleus, while inhibition of the activator restored the activity expression above basal levels. This finding correlates with previous data from our lab showing a decrease in activity in myofibroblasts treated with PMA and assayed amperometrically with an NO electrode.

Existeixen moltes evidències que indiquen que les diferents funcions descrites de p21(Cip1) es deuen, en certa part, a la seva localització intracel·lular. Mentre que la p21(Cip1) nuclear inhibeix la proliferació cel·lular, la p21(Cip1) citoplasmàtica és capaç de regular la supervivència i la mobilitat cel·lular. El fet que les funcions de p21(Cip1) en cada un dels compartiments cel·lulars tinguin papers oposats fa que sigui d'un gran interès l'estudi dels canvis de localització de p21(Cip1) i els mecanismes que regulen aquesta translocació, així com les possibles vies que p21(Cip1) pugui fer servir per a localitzar-se en els diferents compartiments cel·lulars.En aquesta tesi s'han realitzat dos estudis diferenciats, però amb un objectiu comú ja que tots dos es centren en l'anàlisi dels mecanismes reguladors de la localització cel·lular de p21(Cip1). En la primera part d'aquesta tesi, observem la importància de la fosforilació de p21(Cip1) per part de la proteïna cinasa C (PKC). Aquesta fosforilació té lloc en el residu Ser153, molt proper a la senyal de localització nuclear (NLS) de la p21(Cip1) i es capaç de regular la localització cel·lular de p21(Cip1). Aquests resultats, juntament amb altres treballs, demostren que la fosforilació de p21(Cip1) afavoreix la seva localització en el citoplasma. Diferents aproximacions experimentals ens van permetre observar com aquesta fosforilació inhibeix la unió entre p21(Cip1) i CaM. D'aquest primer treball se'n deriva un model de regulació de la localització cel·lular de p21(Cip1) en el qual la unió a CaM i la fosforilació per PKC tenen papers oposats. D'una banda, la unió de p21(Cip1) a CaM inhibeix la seva fosforilació per part de PKC i afavoreix la localització de p21(Cip1) en el nucli. D'altra banda, la fosforilació de p21(Cip1) en el residu Ser153 indueix una localització citoplasmàtica de p21(Cip1). Treballs posteriors ens van permetre observar com la sortida de p21(Cip1) del nucli cap al citoplasma també està regulada. Després del dany al DNA, els nivells cel·lulars de p21(Cip1) incrementen, especialment en el nucli, per tal d'assegurar una aturada del cicle cel·lular. Observem com en resposta al dany al DNA, p21(Cip1) s'acumula no només en el nucleoplasma de les cèl·lules sinó que també s'acumula en el nuclèol. En les cèl·lules danyades els components nucleolars es troben desorganitzats i el nuclèol perd els contactes amb l'embolcall nuclear i presenta unes estructures esfèriques en el seu interior. La p21(Cip1) present en les estructures esfèriques del nuclèol està en un equilibri dinàmic amb la p21(Cip1) del nucleoplasma i la presència de p21(Cip1) en aquestes estructures correlaciona amb una inhibició de l'export p21(Cip1) cap al citoplasma. Aquests resultats donen suport a l'existència d'una via d'export de proteïnes nuclears a través del nuclèol, semblant a la que intervé en l'export de ribosomes, la qual es veuria afectada amb la desestructuració dels nuclèols en resposta al dany cel·lular. A més, amb els resultats obtinguts no descartem la possibilitat que p21(Cip1) pugui ser modificada en el nuclèol ja que en resposta al dany al DNA també s'hi localitzen altres proteïnes implicades en diferents vies de modificació post-traduccional. Així doncs, l'acumulació nuclear de p21(Cip1) en resposta al dany al DNA no es deu únicament a un increment de la seva transcripció sinó que aquesta acumulació també es deguda a la inhibició de la sortida de p21(Cip1) cap al citoplasma a través del nuclèol.En conclusió, tant l'entrada com la sortida de la p21(Cip1) del nucli és un mecanisme altament regulat que farà que la localització de p21(Cip1) pugui variar en diferents situacions fisiològiques de la cèl·lula. Aquest fet és de gran importància per al correcte funcionament cel·lular ja que com hem descrit anteriorment, p21(Cip1) és una proteïna amb funcions oposades depenent de la seva localització intracel·lular: oncogènica al citoplasma i supressora de tumors al nucli. / It is well known that p21(Cip1) is a protein with a dual function in oncogenesis depending mainly on its intracellular localization: tumor suppressor in the nucleus and oncogenic in the cytoplasm. The importance of p21(Cip1) cellular localization indicates that it has to be precisely regulated.On one side we observed the importance of p21(Cip1) phosphorylation by PKC inducing its cytoplasmic localization. PKC phosphorylates p21(Cip1) at Ser 153 and when phosphorylated, p21(Cip1) can not bind to CaM. From this study we conclude that CaM and PKC have an opposite role in the regulation of p21(Cip1) localization: CaM binding to p21(Cip1) prevents its phosphorylation by PKC at Ser153 and consequently allows its nuclear localization; while when phosphorylated at Ser153, p21(Cip1) is located at the cytoplasm.On the other side the export of p21(Cip1) from the nucleus to the cytoplasm is also regulated. After DNA damage, p21(Cip1) increases and accumulates in the nucleus to ensure cell cycle arrest. We observed that after DNA damage p21(Cip1) accumulates not only in the nucleoplasm but also in the disrupted nucleoli. In damaged cells the nucleolar components are disorganized and nucleoli have lost their contacts with the nuclear envelope and appear with spherical structures inside. The nucleolar p21(Cip1) forms a dynamic equilibrium between the nucleolus and the nucleoplasm and correlates with the inhibition of p21(Cip1) nuclear export. This result proves the existence of a nucleolar export route to the cytoplasm for p21(Cip1) similar to the one described for the ribosome export. Moreover, the results obtained suggested that p21(Cip1) could be modified in the nucleolus in response to DNA damage as different proteins involved in post-translation modifications also localize in the nucleoli after the damage. Thus, after DNA damage, p21(Cip1) accumulates in the nucleus due to an increase in its transcription and due to an inhibition of its export to the cytoplasm.All this results together indicate the importance of p21(Cip1) localization depending on the cellular context and that its localization is precisely regulated by different pathways.

PKCe plays a very important role in mediating the protection against myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury induced by ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and pharmacologic preconditioning (PPC). The redistribution of PKCe was assessed by subcellular fractionation and western blotting in the Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart. Either 5min ischemia or 5min administration of adenosine A1 and/or A3 agonists, bradykinin, angiotensin II, and d1-opioid agonists resulted in PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria. This effect of IPC on PKCe redistribution was visible up to at least 30min of reperfusion, while that of PPC was lost by 10min of drug washout, indicative of the transient nature of PKCe redistribution. PKCe redistribution to mitochondria by IPC was also visualized using immunogold electron microscopy. Thus, IPC and PPC caused PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria, which was longer-lasting in IPC than in PPC.

PKCe plays a very important role in mediating the protection against myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury induced by ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and pharmacologic preconditioning (PPC). The redistribution of PKCe was assessed by subcellular fractionation and western blotting in the Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart. Either 5min ischemia or 5min administration of adenosine A1 and/or A3 agonists, bradykinin, angiotensin II, and d1-opioid agonists resulted in PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria. This effect of IPC on PKCe redistribution was visible up to at least 30min of reperfusion, while that of PPC was lost by 10min of drug washout, indicative of the transient nature of PKCe redistribution. PKCe redistribution to mitochondria by IPC was also visualized using immunogold electron microscopy. Thus, IPC and PPC caused PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria, which was longer-lasting in IPC than in PPC.