An ambient odour of anise was used in a context-dependent memory study with three different memory tasks targeting both declarative and non-declarative memory functions. Declarative memory was assessed by means of two episodic memory tests; recall of a prose text and a complex figure. Priming was used to assess the non-declarative memory with word fragment completion. Memory was tested immediately and after 48 hours. The results showed a significant main effect of context (odour or not) for all three tests in favour of the olfactory context. In addition, a significant main effect of time was observed for all three tests and a significant interaction effect between context and time for the priming test were observed. This interaction showed that the priming effect was equal in size across both conditions at immediate testing, although when the odour was reinstated at the delayed test the results showed larger priming relative the control condition.

Social anxiety describes a marked and persistent fear of negative evaluation in social performance situations that invariably evokes anxiety. In the following study, three dimensions of perception and information processing in context of social anxiety were covered: distinctions between state and trait anxiety, implicit associations, and subliminal priming. Implicit associations may be defined as unconscious cognitive processes related to one's preferences and biases. Implicit associations may also affect how quickly an individual perceives a threatening situation. Exposure to subliminal stimuli also appears to have an effect on the perception of stress-inducing stimuli. This research examined how subliminal priming may influence implicit associations. Results from the present study suggested that the implicit associations of social anxiety were minimally but significantly related to explicit reports of anxiety. Subliminal priming significantly influenced the participants' implicit associations of social anxiety.

Syftet med den här uppsatsen är att utföra de la Fuente et al:s (2014) experiment med priming av temporalt fokus hos arbisktalande individer med svenska som andraspråk. De frågor som undersöks är i vilken utsträckning de la Fuente et al:s temporalfokushypotes är generaliserbar till fler språkgrupper än spansktalande, vilka primingeffekterna blir hos individerna, samt vilka faktorer som inverkar på det temporala fokuset utöver primingen. Metoden är att återupprepa det experiment de la Fuente et al. gjort med spansktalande, genom att återutföra det på en grupp arabisktalande individer med svenska som andraspråk. Resultatet av föreliggande studies upprepning av de la Fuentes experiment på arabisktalande, visar att primingeffekterna uteblir, men att faktorer som vistelsetid och ålder inverkar påvisbart på tidsrepresentationen. Utbildningsbakgrund visar tendenser till att inverka på tidsrepresentationen. Ett temporalt fokus påverkbart av yttre stimuli går inte att påvisa i den här studien, varför delar av temporalfokushypotesen inte är generaliserbar till alla språkgrupper.

Results from traditional assessment measures used with Spanish-English bilingual children may not be representative of this population’s morphosyntactic abilities due to their dynamic proficiencies. Short-term learning tasks such as structural priming may provide more comprehensive information on bilingual children’s morphosyntactic abilities. The purpose of this thesis was to analyze items from the experimental version of the Bilingual English Spanish Assessment-Middle Extension (BESA-ME) in order to select appropriate item types to be used on a structural priming task. The Experimental BESA-ME was administered to 137 children with typical development and 37 children with language impairment between the ages of 7;0 to 9;11. Results revealed that appropriate items for a structural priming task were third-person singular, past tense, and possessives in English, and conditionals, subjunctives, and direct object clitics in Spanish. Depending on the purpose of the structural priming tasks, additional items also showed potential for use. / text

The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the extent to which there is consistent evidence pertaining to the prime lexicality effect. Theoretical claims about the nature of this effect, in which masked nonword form primes produce greater facilitation than word form primes, have been hotly debated in the masked priming literature. Here, there are two major conflicting accounts of visual word recognition to consider. Cascaded activation approaches such as the Interactive Activation model rely on competition between word units to account for word recognition. This view predicts inhibitory effects for word form primes due to competition between word units for the prime and target. In contrast, proponents of the Search Model have maintained that elements in the process of verifying visual input suggest that word primes should produce neither facilitatory nor inhibitory effects during masked presentation. Evidence that is consistent with both approaches has been reported in the literature. A 1998 study by Forster and Veres looked at long words using a masked lexical decision task and demonstrated strong facilitation from nonword primes and no effect for word primes. A 2006 paper for Davis and Lupker, however, reported that the nonword prime facilitation that they observed using the same task was accompanied by strong word prime inhibition. The presence of this inhibitory effect seems to support the interactive activation account, but it remains unclear why inhibitory effects such as these were not seen in the Forster and Veres work. The present study sought to explore the reliability of the effects that are generated by word form primes. In particular, the different types of stimuli used in the conflicting papers (i.e. long versus short items) were contrasted. Evaluations regarding their relative discrimination difficulty and performance during masked lexical decision were conducted. The investigation revealed that there is indeed a difference between the output provided by those different stimulus types and that context effects emerge when they are presented together in the same experiment. The implications of these findings for the various views on visual word recognition are discussed.

This thesis is about how our syntactic choice changes with linguistic experience. Studies on syntactic priming show that our decisions are influenced by sentences that we have recently heard or recently spoken. They also show that not all sentences have an equal amount of influence; that repetition of verbs increases priming (the lexical-boost effect) and that some verbs are more susceptible to priming than others. This thesis explores how and why syntactic decisions change with time and what these observations tell us about the cognitive mechanism of speaking. Specifically, we set out to develop a theoretical account of syntactic priming. Theoretical accounts require mathematical models and this thesis develops a sequence of mathematical models for understanding various aspects of syntactic priming. Cognitive processes are modelled as dynamical systems that can change their behaviour when they process information. We use these dynamical systems to investigate how each episode of language comprehension or production affects syntactic decisions. We also use these systems to investigate how long priming persists, how groups of consecutive sentences affect structural decisions, why repeating words leads to greater syntactic priming and what this tells us about how words, concepts and syntax are cognitively represented. We obtain two kinds of results by simulating these mathematical models. The first kind of results reveal how syntactic priming evolves over time. We find that structural priming itself shows a gradual decay with time but the lexical enhancement of priming decays catastrophically – a result consistent with experimental observations. We also find that consecutive episodes of language processing add up nonlinearly in memory, which challenges the design of some existing psycholinguistic experiments. The second kind of results reveal how our syntax module might be connected to other cognitive modules. We find that the lexical enhancement of syntactic priming might be a consequence of how the modules of attention and working memory influence syntactic decisions. These models suggest a mechanism of priming that is in contrast to a previous prediction-based account. This prediction-based account proposes that we actively predict what we hear and structural priming is due to error-correction whenever our predictions do not match the stimuli. In contrast, our account embodies syntactic priming in cognitive processes of attention, working memory and long-term memory. It asserts that our linguistic decisions are not based solely on abstract rules but also depend on the cognitive implementation of each module. Our investigations also contribute a novel theoretical framework for studying syntactic priming. Previous studies analyse priming using error-correction or Hebbian learning algorithms. We introduce the formalism of dynamical systems. This formalism allows us to trace the effect of information processing through time. It explains how residual activation from a previous episode might play a role in structural decisions, thereby enriching our understanding of syntactic priming. Since these dynamical systems are also used to model neural processes, this theoretical framework brings our understanding of priming one step closer to its biological implementation, bridging the gap between neural processes and abstract thoughts.

Interaction with dendritic cells (DCs) is considered as central to immunosuppression induced by viruses, including measles virus (MV). Commonly, viral infection of DCs abrogates their ability to promote T cell expansion, yet underlying mechanisms at a cellular level are undefined. It appears that MV-WTF infection modulate DCs morphology and dynamic adhesion on extra cellular matrix proteins such as FN or ICAM-1. By morphological criteria, WTF-DCs resembled LPS-DCs, associated with their mature phenotype also adhered less efficiently to the FN or ICAM-1 support. Reduced adhesion could not be explained by a lack of 1-integrin expression or activation. Similarly, MV-DCs strongly resembled LPS-DCs in that levels of focal adhesion kinase phosphorylated at Y397 were high and not further enhanced upon FN ligation. Fascin, a downstream effector of integrin signaling was highly upregulated in LPS-DCs and moderately in WTF-DCs, and differences in its subcellular distribution were not observed between both cell cultures. Apparently, however, fascin associated less efficiently with PKC in WTF-DCs then in LPS-DCs. In line with findings for murine DCs, high motility of mature human DCs was found to require expression of Rac-GTPases. Human LPS-DCs and more so, DC transfected to express constitutively active Rac1 were the most motile DC-species analysed, confirming that migration of human DC also involved Rac activity. The velocity of WTF-DCs on FN is below that of LPS-DCs, indicating that maturation induced by WTF may be insufficient to completely promote integrin signaling which leads to Rac activation. The organisation of MV-DC/T cell interfaces was consistent with that of functional immune synapses with regard to CD3 clustering, MHC class II surface recruitment and MTOC location. These analyses are based in the selection of stable conjugates. Subsequently, however, neither contacts nor calcium flux can be stabilised and sustained in the majority of MV-DC/T cell conjugates and only promoted abortive T cell activation. Formation of spatially organised IS in T cells requites, prolonged contact durations. Therefore, aberrant distribution patterns of CD3 in these structures, if occurring, are not likely to contribute to the type of contacts predominating for WTF-DC/T cell interactions. It is also likely that transient interactions of less than 2 minutes may if at all, not efficiently support viral transmission to T cells. Transient interactions are typically observed with immature DCs in the absence of antigen, but this is not likely to be relevant in our allogenic system, which includes SA-loaded WTF-DCs. Thus, MV-infected DCs retain activities required for initiating, but not sustaining T cell conjugation and activation. This is partially rescued if surface expression of the MV glycoproteins on DCs is abolished by infection with a recombinant MV encoding VSV G protein instead, indicating that these contribute directly to synapse destabilisation and thereby act as effectors of T cell inhibition. / Die Interaktion mit Dentritischen Zellen (DCs) wird für die Immunsuppression, welche durch Viren einschließlich des Masernvirus (MV) hervorgerufen wird, als ein zentraler Mechanismus angesehen. Für gewöhnlich unterdrücken virale Infektionen von DCs deren Fähigkeit, die T-Zell Expansion zu vermitteln. Dies geschieht durch einen Mechanismus, welcher bisher nicht auf zellulärer Ebene definiert ist. Es scheint, dass eine MV-WTF Infektion die Morphologie der DCs und deren dynamische Adhäsion an extrazellulären Matrixproteinen wie FN oder ICAM-1 moduliert. Unter morphologischen Gesichtspunkten ähneln WTF-DCs den LPS-DCs. Entsprechend ihrem reifen Phänotyp adherieren erstgenannte ebenfalls weniger effektiv unter Einwirkung von FN und ICAM-1. Die reduzierte Adhäsion konnte nicht durch das Fehlen von ß1-Integrin Expression oder Aktivierung erklärt werden. Analog glichen MV-DCs den LPS-DCs in der Hinsicht sehr, dass deren Expressionslevel von Y397 phosphorylierter Fokaler-Adhäsions-Kinase hoch war und durch FN Ligation nicht weiter anstieg. Fascin, ein downstream Effektor des Integrin- Signalwegs, wurde in LPS-DCs stark und in WTF-DCs moderat hochreguliert. Differenzen in der subzellulären Verteilung des Fascin wurden zwischen den beiden Zellkulturen nicht beobachtet. Allerdings assoziierte Fascin in WTF-DCs weniger effizient mit PKCα, als in LPS-DCs. In Übereinstimmung mit Befunden bei murinen DCs wurde herausgefunden, dass eine hohe Motilität reifer humaner DCs die Expression von Rac-GTPasen voraussetzt. Humane LPS-DCs und mehr noch transfizierte DCs, welche konsitutiv aktive Rac1-GTPase exprimieren, waren die mobilsten unter den analysierten DC Typen. Dies bestätigt, dass die Migration humaner DCs unter Anderem von der Rac-Aktivität abhängt. Die Geschwindigkeit von WTF-DCs auf FN ist niedriger, als die von LPS-DCs, was darauf hinweist, dass die durch WTF induzierte Reifung unzureichend sein könnte, um die Integrin-Signalgebung auszulösen, welche zur Rac Aktivierung führt. Die Ausbildung der MV-DC / T-Zell-Verbindungen stimmte mit der einer funktionalen immunologischen Synapse in Hinsicht auf die Formung von CD3 Clustern, die Oberflächenrekrutierung von MHC-II-Molekülen und der MTOC-Lokalisierung überein. Diese Befunde fußen allerdings auf der Selektion stabiler Konjugate. Dagegen konnten bei der Mehrzahl der MV-DC / T-Zell-Konjugate weder Kontakte noch Calcium-Influx stabilisiert und aufrechterhalten und nur eine unvollständige T-Zell-Aktivierung hervorrufen werden. Die Ausbildung räumlich organisierter Synapsen in T-Zellen setzt länger anhaltende Kontakte voraus. Das abweichende Verteilungsmuster von CD3 in diesen Strukturen steuert deshalb, soweit vorhanden, wohl nicht zu der Art von Kontakten bei, welche die WTF-DC / T-Zell-Interaktion dominieren. Es ist außerdem wahrscheinlich, dass transiente Interaktionen von weniger als zwei Minuten die virale Transmission zu T-Zellen, wenn überhaupt, nicht effizient unterstützen. Transiente Interaktionen werden typischer Weise bei unreifen DCs in der Abwesenheit von Antigen beobachtet, doch dies ist wahrscheinlich nicht relevant in dem hier verwendeten allogenen System, welches SA-geladene WTF-DCs verwendet. MV-infizierte DCs besitzen folglich die Eigenschaften, welche für die Initialisierung, aber nicht solche die für die Aufrechterhaltung der T-Zellkonjugation und Aktivierung der T-Zellen nötig sind. Dieses Unvermögen wird teilweise kompensiert, wenn die Oberflächenexpression von MV Glykoproteinen auf DCs durch die Infektion mit rekombinatem MV, welches das VSV G Protein kodiert, verhindert wird. Aus diesem Befund kann man schließen, dass die MV Glykoproteine direkt zur Destabilisierung der Synapse beitragen und deshalb als Effektoren der T-Zell Inhibition agieren.

T-Zellimmunantworten werden normalerweise durch folgenden Weg initiiert: unreife dendritische Zellen nehmen Antigen in der Peripherie auf, wandern in die sekundären lymphatischen Organe, wobei sie auf ihrem Weg sowohl reifen als auch das Antigen prozessieren. In den sekundären lymphatischen Organen angekommen, präsentieren sie als reife dendritische Zellen den T-Zellen die Antigene in Form von Peptiden zusammen mit kostimulierenden Molekülen. Dadurch rufen sie eine spezifische T-Zellantwort hervor. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob nicht Situationen herbeigeführt werden können, die ein T-Zell priming außerhalb der sekundären lymphatischen Organe erlauben. Dazu wurden ein murines Modell, bei dem das Zytokin Lymphotoxin-alpha spezifisch am Tumor angereichert wurde, und ein humanes Modell, bei dem reife, antigenbeladene DC intradermal appliziert wurden, untersucht. Im murinen Modell zeigte sich, dass die gerichtete Anreicherung von Lymphotoxin-alpha am Tumor zu dessen Zerstörung führte, welche durch T-Zellen vermittelt wurde, und mit der Induktion eines tertiären lymphatischen Gewebes am Tumor assoziiert war. Dieses tertiäre lymphatische Gewebe war durch die Kompartimentalisierung von T- und B-Zellen und der Präsenz von high endothelial venules charakterisiert und besaß zudem mit dendritischen Zellen und naïven T-Zellen alle Voraussetzungen für ein in loco priming. Dementsprechend konnte in der Folge der gerichteten Lymphotoxin-alpa Therapie im Tumor ein Anstieg am T-Zellinfiltrat, welches sich oligoklonal zusammensetzte, beobachtet werden. In vitro Experimente verdeutlichte die Tumorspezifität der Therapie-induzierten T-Zellantwort, da die T-Zellen auf ein Tumorantigen mit der Ausschüttung von Interferon gamma reagierten und die Tumorzellen lysierten. Im humanen Modell wurden Hautbiopsien von Melanompatienten untersucht, denen im Rahmen einer klinischen Studie autologe, in vitro generierte und antigenbeladene DC intradermal appliziert wurden. Die Patienten erlaubten die Entnahme von Hautbiopsien aus den Injektionsstellen für wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen. Eine Induktion bzw. Verstärkung einer spezifischen T-Zellantwort durch die Vakzinierung mit antigenbeladenen dendritischen Zellen konnte bereits in zahlreichen Arbeiten und auch in dem in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Patientenkollektiv gezeigt werden. Bei der Analyse der Injektionsstellen zeigt sich, dass ein großer Teil der injizierten dendritischen Zellen in der Vakzinierungsstelle verharren und dass diese unabhängig von einer Beladung mit Antigen zu einer Induktion von high endothelial venules Charakteristika führte. Waren die dendritischen Zellen mit Antigen beladen, so führte dies zu einem stärkeren T-Zellinfiltrat in den Injektionsstellen, wobei sowohl naïve als auch central memory T-Zellen nachgewiesen wurde. Diese Zellen wurden vermutlich durch die Überexpression der DC CK1 und SDF1 Chemokinen in den Injektionsstellen, die chemotaktisch auf T-Zellen wirken, angezogen. Das Infiltrat in den Injektionsstellen war oligoklonal und wies tumorspezifische T-Zellen auf. Nachdem diese T-Zellklone im Blut der Patienten vor der Vakzinierung nicht nachweisbar waren, müssen sie zumindest in den Injektionsstellen expandiert sein. Interessanterweise konnte einer dieser Klone in Metastasen nachgewiesen werden, die nach der Vakzinierung dem Patienten entfernt wurden. In beiden Modellen wurde also durch die Manipulation des Mikromilieus, d.h. Lymphotoxin-alpa Anreicherung am Tumor bzw. Injektion von reifen dendritischen Zellen in die Haut, Strukturen wie z.B. high endothelial venules induziert, die ein in loco priming ermöglichen sollten. Dementsprechend riefen diese Veränderungen ein Tumorantigen-spezifisches Infiltrat hervor. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass T-Zell priming auch außerhalb sekundärer lymphatischer Organe erfolgen kann. Prinzipiell scheint also nur der Kontakt von reifen, antigenbeladenen dendritischen Zellen mit den entsprechenden antigenspezifischen, naïven T-Zellen entscheiden zu sein. Die Möglichkeit des in vitro primings bekräftigt diese These. In vivo erfolgt dieses Aufeinandertreffen normalerweise in den sekundären lymphatischen Organen, doch konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass Veränderungen des Mikromilieus diesen Kontakt auch in anderen Geweben ermöglicht. / Cellular immune responses are initiated by direct interaction of naïve T cells with professional antigen presenting cells, i.e., dendritic cells. In general, this interaction takes place in secondary lymphoid organs: immature dendritic cells capture antigen in the periphery, and while homing to the secondary lymphoid organs they mature and process the antigen. In these organs they present peptides derived from the antigen together with co-stimulatory molecules to the naïve T cells and thereby initiate an antigen-specific T cell response. In the present work we tested if situations can be created allowing priming outside secondary lymphoid organs. To this end, a murine model in which lymphotoxin-alpha was specifically accumulated at the tumor site and a human model where in vitro generated, matured and antigen pulsed dendritic cells were injected intradermal into the patients were investigated. In the murine model the accumulation of lymphotoxin-alpha at the tumor site led to the eradication of the tumor. This therapeutic success was mediated by T cells and associated with the induction of a tertiary lymphoid tissue characterized by compartmentalized T and B cell aggregates and the presence of high endothelial venules. Moreover, with dendritic cells and naïve T cells present in these tissues requirements for in loco priming were fulfilled. Indeed, targeted lymphotoxin-alpha enlarged the T cell-infiltrate within the tumor. In vitro assays demonstrated the tumor-specificity of the therapy-induced infiltrate. In the human model skin biopsies taken from melanoma patients receiving dendritic cell based vaccination and participating at a clinical I study were investigated. The patients provided informed consent to participate in this experimental procedure and to donate skin biopsies for immunological monitoring. Skin biopsies were taken from the injection sites in which autologous, in vitro generated, maturated and antigen-pulsed dendritic cells were injected. Several reports including one about patients from the present patient cohort demonstrated the induction and/or enhancement of tumor specific T cell responses subsequent to dendritic cells based vaccination therapy. Our analysis demonstrated that most of the injected dendritic cells were entrenched at the injection site. The mere presence of mature dendritic cells in the skin caused the induction of high endothelial venules. In case the dendritic cells were pulsed with antigen the T cell infiltrate was enlarged and consisted both of naïve and central memory T cells. These cells were presumably attracted by the overexpression of the T cell attractant chemokines DC-CK1 and SDF-1 leading to an oligoclonal T cell infiltrate composed partially of tumor specific T cells. As T cell clones detected within the injections sites were not present among the peripheral blood lymphocytes, these clones were at least expanded in the injection sites. Notably, one clone could be detested in metastases of one patient excised after the vaccination. In both models manipulation of the microenvironment, i.e. targeting lymphotoxin-alpa to the tumor or injecting mature dendritic cells into the skin, respectively, induced structures like high endothelial venules which should enable in loco priming. Accordingly, these changes induced a tumor antigen specific T cell infiltrate. Thus, these results imply that T cells can be primed outside of secondary lymphoid tissues. Generally, the contact between mature, antigen presenting dendritic cells and the respective antigen specific T cells should be the only necessity for priming. Notably, the possibility of in vitro priming sustains this thesis. In vivo secondary lymphoid organs enable this contact. The present work, however, demonstrates that this contact can also take place in different tissue caused by manipulation of the respective microenvironment.

<p>Denna studie har undersökt huruvida priming för den kvinnliga könsstereotypen i tv-reklam ökar graden av konformitet hos kvinnor. Tidigare forskning har visat att sådan priming kan leda till försämrade prestationer och sänkta ambitionsnivåer hos kvinnor. Deltagarna i studien utgjordes av 76 kvinnliga universitetsstudenter. Primingmanipulationen bestod av tolv reklamfilmer riktade till kvinnor. Graden av konformitet mättes i form av deltagarnas skattning av antal ljud på ett ljudurskiljningstest som gjordes tillsammans med fyra konfederater. Betingelserna bestod av priming eller ingen priming före konformitetstestet. Resultaten visade inte på någon signifikant skillnad mellan experimentgrupp och kontrollgrupp när det gäller grad av konformitet, d.v.s. primingmanipulationen har inte gett utslag, vilket går emot studiens hypotes.</p>

Recent work suggests that the links between religious belief and behavior with a variety of positive outcomes (e.g., longer life, more marital satisfaction, scholastic achievement, better health behaviors) may be partially explained by religious belief systems' ability to foster self-control and self-regulation. The current investigation sought to explore this hypothesis by determining if induction of religious cognition (through a supraliminal religious prime) could increase behavioral self-control, operationalized as performance on a maintained grip task. Using 118 participants, the author tested whether nonconscious exposure to religious content would increase the amount of time that participants were willing to physically persist at two rounds of the maintained grip task as compared to a control group. A within-subjects trial-by-prime interaction was found (the prime appeared to cause participants to persist at the task for less time during the first trial, but not the second) and a between-subjects sex-by-prime interaction was found (on average, men given the religious prime held their grip for less time than did men in the control group, whereas no differences were found between women). Findings are discussed in terms of the link between religion and self-control and future directions are suggested.