No description available.

A series of analogue flume experiments are used to investigate initiation, flow and deposition of static piles of polymict materials, the sorting during transport, and the three dimensional geometry of the resulting deposits. Sequential charges are used to investigate the effects and extent of reworking. The particle heterogeneity is designed to simulate typical PDC make-up, with analogues for juvenile pumice and lithic clasts, as well as the fine-grained pumiceous material which makes up the bulk of the flow. Analogue flume experiments are used to investigate the generation of complex facies variations typical of pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits. Polymict charges are developed to behave as analogues for the particle size and density contrasts present in PDC (i.e. lithic and juvenile pumice clasts), and investigate the effect of granular sorting during flow on the geometry of deposit architectures. Multiple charges are used to simulate pulses or sequences of separate PDC in order to assess the extent and effects of reworking. 3D visualisation of the resulting deposits reveals stratigraphies analogous to those seen in PDC, including pumice ‘rafting' or over-passing and inverse grading of pumice, and normal grading of lithics by simple gravitational granular sorting. Reworking between differentially-coloured layers makes several complex shear-derived Kelvin-Helmholtz instability features apparent, from fully developed rotational eddies, to less developed recumbent flame structures. The implications for the formation of these in PDC are assessed, including the potential influences on temperature proxy data, radiogenic dating by included phenocrysts (40Ar/39Ar) or charcoals (14C), calculation of eruptive volumes, sedimentation rates and flow velocity.

The transport and emplacement mechanisms of the highly energetic pyroclastic density current (PDC) generated in the blast style eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, on 26 December 1997 are examined through detailed lithological mapping and sedimentological analysis of the deposits. The PDC formed deposits which range in grain size from coarse breccias to fine ash, with distinctive bipartite layering and well-developed grading and stratification. On a large scale the PDC was highly erosive, sculpting large bedforms and depositing relatively thin deposits. However, locally, centimetre scale topographic protuberances were responsible for significant variations in deposit thickness, grain size, and the development of dune bedforms. The strong lateral and vertical lithofacies variations are attributed to well-developed density stratification, which formed during explosive expansion of the dome prior to PDC formation. Experimental modelling of stratified inertial gravity currents was carried out to investigate the effects of density stratification prior to release of the current. The degree of stratification governs the rate of mixing in the current, which in turn influences the velocity. Well·stratified currents initially move faster than homogenous currents but are slower in the latter stages of current propagation. The results have important implications for deposition from particle-laden flows, which may become stratified with coarser material concentrated at the base of the current. The role of PDCs jn the formation of unit US2-B, emplaced during the Upper Scoriae 2 eruption (79± 8 ka) on Santorini, Greece, was investigated through sedimentological analysis and mapping. Proximally, the unit exhibits features characteristic of emplacement from a flow, such as thickening into palaeochannels and erosive basal contacts. Distally, the unit is of uniform thickness and grain size parameters suggest the deposit is more characteristic of exnplacement from a fallout mechanism. Discrete lenses of fine-grained material within US2-B, and a gradational upper contact with PDC deposits suggest that there may have been contemporaneous deposition resulting the development of a hybrid deposit.

The thinning trend of a low-aspect ratio ignimbrite (LARI) in a direction of increasing topographic relief at the Pululagua Volcanic Complex, Ecuador, is established by correlating continuous ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles and radar reflector behavior with stratigraphic measurements and unit behavior. Minimum density-current and vertical (cross-sectional) velocity analyses of the LARIs parent pyroclastic density-current are performed by analyzing the exchange of kinetic energy for potential energy in an upslope direction. Continuous GPR profiles were acquired in a direction of increasing topographic relief with the intent of identifying the LARI within the GPR record and examining the relationships between the LARI and the underlying paleo-topographical surface. Stratigraphic measurements recorded throughout the field area demonstrate that the LARI thins 7.5 m in an upslope direction (over 480 m distance and 95 m elevation). Stratigraphic measurements enable correlations with GPR profiles, resulting in LARI identification. By utilizing GPR derived paleo-topographical surface elevations, minimum flow velocities of the LARI-producing parent pyroclastic density-current at the base of upslope flow are shown to be at least 25 m/s. Vertical velocity analyses based on the identification of internal GPR reflectors, interpreted as flow streamlines, yield pyroclastic surge-like cross-sectional velocity profiles of the LARIs parent density-current. Maximum density-current velocities at the base of upslope flow reach 24 m/s and diminish toward the base of the current.

<p> The Rotoiti Breccia Formation is a pyroclastic flow deposit located at the northern end of the Taupo volcanic zone, North Island New Zealand. It was formed by a fairly low energy subaerial eruption and subsequent flowage, which restricted it to the topographic low between two older ignimbrites.</p> <p> Samples from proximal, medial and distal areas of the flow were examined to determine changes in grain size and particle type distribution as the flow progressed. It was found that on the whole, the flow was very homogenous. However, some initial turbulence at the very beginning of the flow has produced a bimodal grain size distribution presumably due to increased mechanical breakage. A much more prominant crystal population was found in the distal areas of the flow due to rounding of pumice grains and the elutriation of the resultant fines.</p> / Thesis / Bachelor of Science (BSc)

Les écoulements pyroclastiques sont des écoulements volcaniques complexes dont le comportement physique fait encore l'objet de débats. Ils sont composés de deux parties : l'écoulement dense basal, riche en particules et en blocs, surmonté par la déferlante, diluée et turbulente. Les interactions entre ces deux parties ne sont pas bien comprises, tout comme leurs échanges de masses et de quantités de mouvement. Partant de ce constat, cette thèse se concentre sur l’étude des mécanismes de formation de la déferlante à partir de l’écoulement dense.Les expériences mettent en évidence un mécanisme de formation d'un écoulement dilué par l’alternance d’incorporation d'air et d’élutriation des particules fines d’un lit granulaire dense soumis à des vibrations. L'air est aspiré dans le lit granulaire pendant les phases de dilatation puis expulsé pendant les phases de contraction. Une partie des particules est alors soutenue par l'air turbulent expulsé et forme un mélange de gaz et de particules qui, plus dense que l’air, se transforme en un écoulement de gravité. Extrapolé à l’échelle d’un volcan, ce mécanisme d’incorporation d’air et d’élutriation peut être reproduit par une topographie rugueuse, où chaque obstacle génère une compaction puis une dilation de l’écoulement dense. La quantification du mécanisme a été effectuée et l’approche expérimentale a permis d’aboutir à une loi reliant le flux de masse de la partie dense vers la déferlante à la vitesse de l’écoulement dense. Le modèle numérique est utilisé dans un premier temps pour étudier la rhéologie de l’écoulement dense qui, en contrôlant sa vitesse, contrôle le flux de masse précédemment évoqué. Un chapitre est consacré à l’effet de la fluidisation de l’écoulement dense sur sa rhéologie. Les résultats montrent que la fluidisation par les gaz est capable d’expliquer à la fois la grande mobilité de ces écoulements, ainsi que la formation des morphologies terminales en lobes et chenaux. L’ingestion d’air dans un écoulement au cours de sa mise en place semble pouvoir expliquer une partie de la dynamique des écoulements denses. Des rhéologies simples, de premier ordre, ont également été analysées : la rhéologie de Coulomb, la rhéologie plastique, et la rhéologie à coefficient de frottement variable. Les résultats montrent que la rhéologie plastique semble la mieux adaptée pour reproduire la vitesse et l’extension des écoulements denses.Ce modèle numérique a ensuite été utilisé pour tester la loi de flux de masse obtenue suite aux expériences de laboratoire. Appliqués à l’effondrement de dôme du 25 juin 1997 à la Soufriere Hills de Montserrat, les résultats montrent que les simulations reproduisent des dépôts de déferlantes dont l’épaisseur et l’extension sont tout à fait réalistes. Les simulations reproduisent même les écoulements denses secondaires issus de la sédimentation de la déferlante puis de la remobilisation des dépôts. Les cycles d’ingestion/expulsion d’air dans l’écoulement dense, par interaction avec la topographie, expliqueraient donc à la fois la grande fluidité des écoulements denses et la formation des déferlantes pyroclastiques. Les résultats de cette thèse mettent à jour un mécanisme nouveau qui pourrait être la clé de la mise en place des écoulements pyroclastiques et pourrait permettre d’améliorer la prévision future des risques et des menaces par modélisation numérique. / Small volume pyroclastic density currents are complex volcanic flows, whose physical behaviour is still debated. They comprise two parts: the pyroclastic flow, rich in particles and blocks, overridden by the ash-cloud surge, a turbulent and dilute flow. The interactions between these two parts are not fully understood, as well as their exchanges of mass and momentum. Therefore, the thesis focuses on the investigation of ash-cloud surge formation mechanisms from the pyroclastic flow. The experiments reveal a mechanism of dilute flow formation by alternation of air incorporation into and elutriation of fine particles from a dense granular bed subjected to vibrations. The air is aspirated into the granular bed during dilatations, and expulsed during the contraction phases. A part of the particles are then sustained by the turbulent expulsed air and form a mixture of gas and particles that transforms into a gravity current. Extrapolated to a volcanic edifice, this mechanism of air incorporation and elutriation can be reproduced by a rough topography, where each obstacle generates a compaction followed by a dilatation of the pyroclastic flow. The quantification of the mechanism has been accomplished and the mass flux from the dense flow to the ash-cloud surge has been deduced.The numerical model is first used to study the pyroclastic flow rheology, which controls the velocity of the flow, and then the mass flux previously mentioned. One chapter is dedicated to the fluidization effect on the pyroclastic flow rheology. Results show that this mechanism can explain the long runout of these flows, and also the formation of levées and channel morphologies. The air ingestion in the flow during its movement could explain a part of the pyroclastic flows dynamic. Simple rheologies has also been analyzed: a Coulomb rheology, a plastic rheology, and a variable friction coefficient rheology. Results show that the plastic rheology seems to be the most adapted rheology to simulate the pyroclastic flow dynamic. Then, the numerical model has been used to test the mass flow law obtained through experiments. Applied to the 25 June 1997 dome collapse at Soufrière Hills Volcano at Montserrat, results show that the simulations reproduce accurately the extension and the thickness of the surge deposits. The simulations are also able to reproduce the surge derived pyroclastic flow, generated by remobilisation of surge deposits. The cycles of ingestion/expulsion of air in the pyroclastic flow by interactions with the topography could explain both the great fluidity of these flows and the formation of ash-cloud surge. These results highlight a new mechanism that could be a key process in pyroclastic flow dynamic, which could improve significantly the hazard and risk assessment using numerical model.

North Crater occupies the north-western quadrant of the Tongariro Volcanic Centre and represents one of at least eleven vents which have been active on Tongariro since the last glacial maximum. The most recent cone-forming activity at North Crater is thought to have occurred between 14-12 ka ago to produce the distinct, wide, flattopped andesite cone. This project focused mainly on the cone-building eruptions at North Crater, including stratigraphic correlations with distal tephra, interpreting eruptive processes, and establishing the sequence of events during cone construction. Detailed field work identified key stratigraphic sections and facies in the proximal, medial and distal environments. These sections allowed stratigraphic correlations to be made between proximal cone-building facies and distal sheet-forming facies at North Crater, and established a complete North Crater eruption stratigraphy. In the proximal environment, welded and non to poorly welded facies formed from fallout of a lava-fountain, pyroclastic flow or as fallout from a convecting plume. In the medial and distal environment, the lithofacies consist of fallout from a convecting plume and minor pyroclastic flow. Convective fall and non to poorly welded pyroclastic flow deposits dominate the lower eruption stratigraphy suggesting explosive eruptions involving a gas-rich magma. A change to welded deposits produced from lava-fountaining occurs later in the cone-building sequence and suggest a change to lower explosively and eruption of gas-poor magma. Grain size, componentry data, density, petrography and SEM analysis were carried out on representative samples to characterise the different facies, and reveal information about eruption processes. The non to poorly welded deposits are typically made up of vesicular pumice, scoria and mingled clasts of sub-rounded bombs and lapilli. The welded facies are relatively dense and clast outlines are often difficult to distinguish. The eruptives are porphyritic with abundant plagioclase gt clinopyroxene gt orthopyroxene gt opaques. Quartzofeldspathic crustal xenoliths are common and indicate crustal assimilation. Mingled clasts of light and dark glass were found to have microlites present in the dark glass, but were absent in the light glass. Electron microprobe analyses found that the dark and light glass components in a single clast had similar compositions, showing that the contrasting physical appearance of the glass is not due to a different chemical composition. Forty three whole rock XRF analyses showed that the magmas ranged from basaltic andesite to andesite, and Harker variation plots display linear trends typical of magma mixing. Magma mixing as the most important magmatic process is supported by disequilibrium of phenocryst compositions and phenocryst textures. Magma viscosity, bulk density and temperature was determined using MAGMA (Kware), and indicate that they fall into the range of typical andesites. Eruptive activity involved vigorous lava-fountaining, minor convecting eruption plumes and dominant collapsing eruption plumes. This activity has produced welded and non-welded pyroclastic flow and fall deposits to form the large cone seen today. There are significant volcanic hazards associated with this style of activity at North Crater, characterised by lava-fountaining, eruption plume fallout, and widespread pyroclastic flows and lahars extending beyond the ring plain. These could all be potentially devastating to the central North Island of New Zealand.

<p>Our interest is the risk assessment of rare natural hazards, such as</p><p>large volcanic pyroclastic flows. Since catastrophic consequences of</p><p>volcanic flows are rare events, our analysis benefits from the use of</p><p>a computer model to provide information about these events under</p><p>natural conditions that may not have been observed in reality.</p><p>A common problem in the analysis of computer experiments, however, is the high computational cost associated with each simulation of a complex physical process. We tackle this problem by using a statistical approximation (emulator) to predict the output of this computer model at untried values of inputs. Gaussian process response surface is a technique commonly used in these applications, because it is fast and easy to use in the analysis.</p><p>We explore several aspects of the implementation of Gaussian process emulators in a Bayesian context. First, we propose an improvement for the implementation of the plug-in approach to Gaussian processes. Next, we also evaluate the performance of a spatial model for large data sets in the context of computer experiments.</p><p>Computer model data can also be combined to field observations in order to calibrate the emulator and obtain statistical approximations to the computer model that are closer to reality. We present an application where we learn the joint distribution of inputs from field data and then bind this auxiliary information to the emulator in a calibration process.</p><p>One of the outputs of our computer model is a surface of maximum volcanic flow height over some geographical area. We show how the topography of the volcano area plays an important role in determining the shape of this surface, and we propose methods</p><p>to incorporate geophysical information in the multivariate analysis of computer model output.</p> / Dissertation

The thermal evolution of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) is the result of entrainment of ambient air, particle concentration, and initial eruptive temperature, which all impact PDC dynamics and their hazards, such as runout distance. The associated hazards and opaqueness of PDCs make it impossible for in-situ entrainment efficiencies or concentration measurements that would provide critical information on the thermal evolution and physical processes of PDCs. The thermal evolution of explosive eruptive events such as volcanic plumes and pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) is reflected in the textures of the material they deposit. A multiscale model is developed to evaluate how the rinds of breadcrust bombs can be used as a unique thermometer to examine the thermal evolution of PDCs. The multiscale, integrated model examines how bubble growth, pyroclast cooling, and dynamics of PDC and projectile pyroclasts form unique pyroclast morphology. Rind development is examined as a function of transport regime (PDC and projectile), transport properties (initial current temperature and current density), and pyroclast properties (initial water content and radius). The model reveals that: 1) rinds of projectile pyroclasts are in general thicker and less vesicular than those of PDC pyroclasts; 2) as the initial current temperature decreases due to initial air entrainment, the rinds on PDC pyroclasts progressively increase in thickness; and 3) rind thickness increases with decreasing water concentration and decreasing clast radius. Therefore, the modeled pyroclast’s morphology is dependent not only on initial water concentration but also on the cooling rate, which is determined by the transport regime. The developed secondary thermal proxy is then applied to the 2006 PDCs from the Tungurahua eruption to constrain the entrainment efficiency and thermal evolution of PDCs. A three-dimensional multiphase Eulerian-Eulerian-Lagrangian (EEL) model is coupled to topography and field data such as paleomagnetic data and rind thicknesses of collected pyroclasts to study the entrainment efficiency and thus the thermal history of PDCs at Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador. The modeled results that are constrained with observations and thermal proxies demonstrate that 1) efficient entrainment of air to the upper portion of the current allows for rapid cooling, 2) the channelized pyroclastic density currents may have developed a stable bed load region that was inefficient at cooling and 3) the PDCs had temperatures of 600-800K in the bed load region but the upper portion of the currents cooled down to ambient temperatures. The results have shown that PDCs can be heterogeneous in particle concentration, temperature, and dynamics and match observations of PDCs down a volcano and the thermal proxies. Lastly, the entrainment efficiencies of PDCs increases with increasing PDC temperature and entrainment varies spatially and temporally. Therefore, the assumption of a well-mixed current with a single entrainment coefficient cannot fully solve the thermal evolution and dynamics of the PDC.

The south-west portion of the main caldera was mapped and a stratigraphy for the caldera-fill was constructed. The exact timing of formation of the main caldera is unclear; However, caldera collapse either predates or was synchronous with the eruption of the Campagnola Tuff. The proximal facies of the Campagnola Tuff exists as a complex relation of ignimbrite, lithic breccia and pyroclastic surge deposits. Overlying this the Galluccio Tuff a compound ignimbrite, ~6 km3 D.R.E, forms the base of the exposed caldera fill. Caldera lakes then became well established and following activity was predominantly phreatomagmatic. Pyroclastic surge deposits possess sand wave structures of several types and their migration direction was apparently controlled by the velocity/flow regime of the surge rather than the moisutre content. The morphology of juvenile clasts from phreatomagmatic deposits indicates that the eruptions were driven by a combination of vesiculation and magma/water interaction. The uppermost pyroclastic deposits are thought to represent the early phase of dome building where water still had access to the vent. The construction of the lava domes brought activity to a close within the main caldera. The Galluccio Tuff on the flanks of the volcano may be divided into three compositionally distinct eruptive units. The Lower Galluccio Tuff, correlated with the bulk of the Galluccio Tuff filling the main caldera. The Middle Galluccio Tuff commenced with the eruption of pumice-rich pyroclastic flows followed by flows enriched in both the size and amount of lithic fragments forming lithic-rich ignimbrite and co-ignimbrite lithic breccias of which several types exist. The Upper Galluccio Tuff is composed of lithic-rich ignimbrite which possess dense pumice fragments and are thought to be the product of a combination of both vesiculation and magma water interaction. Field relations indicate that pyroclastic flows were sometimes generated in quick succession and may have overrun earlier slower moving flows. Occasionally internal shear may have caused the overriding of portions of the same flow, these often coincide with lithic breccias and represent the climax of the eruptive phases. The grading of lithic fragments indicates that the expansion and fluidization decreased and yield strength increased with time in a pyroclastic flow.