Thesis advisor: Ryan Chahrour / Virtual Economies present an excellent opportunity to study Economic concepts and phenomena in a controllable environment where perfect data collection exists. This paper uses Macroeconomic data provided by CCP Games on EVE Online to explore how the Quantity Theory of Money holds in a world without finance. The study supports the Real Business Cycle's effects on prices. Furthermore, a quick look is taken on the effects that player imposed borders have on trade within the EVE universe. It appears that, even in a virtual world, borders tend to reduce patterns of trade among neighboring regions. These findings encourage the further use of virtual economies, particularly Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs), as petri dishes for the study of macroeconomic theories. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2020. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: Economics.

This thesis examines the work of Robert Eisner of Northwestern University concerning the appropriate measure of the federal government budget deficit. Eisner proposes specific adjustments to be incorporated into the calculation of the federal budget deficit in order to account for the effects of inflation. These adjustments effect the federal budget deficit via the effect of inflation on the level of federal debt outstanding and the interaction between this debt and the deficit. The focus of this study is a comparison of the Quantity theory and the Income-Expenditure theory of national income determination (in the tradition of Friedman and Meiselman, 1963) using Eisner’s adjusted measure of the deficit for the period 1955 - 1984. This comparison is made between adjusted and unadjusted deficits as measured by the National Income and Product Accounts and as measured by the Cyclically Adjusted (or High Employment) budget. / Master of Arts

The thesis discusses some issues on the topic of money velocity. Its goal is to summarise theroretical contributions in this area, which are followed by a practical application through the monetary analysis of the Slovak Republic from 1993 to 2000. The theoretical part involves the first approaches to money velocity, explanation of the quantity theory of money and monetarism and their critique. It also describes the monerary transmission mechanism. The practical application part evaluates the impact of the stability of money velocity on the decision of the National Bank of Slovakia to abandon monetary targeting. It also focuses on the other variables that influenced monetary policy execution. The last chapter is devoted to the importance of money velocity if the central bank uses inflation targeting as its policy.

Bakgrund: Enligt den makroekonomiska kvantitetsteorin påverkar penningmängdstillväxten prisnivån i en ekonomi. Mer specifikt säger kvantitetsteorin att ett positivt samband finns mellan tillväxten av penningmängden och prisnivån. I detta arbete undersöks om penningmängdstillväxten i penningmängdsdefintionen M3 har en påverkan på tillgångspriser i form av aktiepriser. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att undersöka om penningmängdstillväxten har en påverkan på aktiepriser.Metod Studien är kvantitativ. För att besvara studiens syfte användes statistisk analys i form av tidsserieregression. Resultat: I tre regressionsmodeller visade sig penningmängdstillväxten vara en signifikant variabel. Hypotesprövningar indikerade också på att ett samband föreligger mellan penningmängdstillväxt och prisnivån på OMXS30. Slutsats: Den sammantagna slutsatsen är att det inte kan uteslutas att penningmängdstillväxten har en påverkan på aktiepriser. / Background: According to the macroeconomic quantity theory of money, the growth in money affects the price level in an economy. More precisely, the quantity theory of money suggests that there is a positive relationship between the growth of money and price level. This study examines whether the money growth has an impact on asset prices in the form of stock prices.  Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine if money growth has an impact on stock prices.Method The study is quantitative. To answer the purpose of the study, statistical analysis in the form av time series regression wasused.  Results: The variable for money growth was determined to be significant in three different regression models. Hypothesis tests also indicated that a relationship between money growth and the price level of OMXS30 was present.  Conclusion: The general conclusion is that the notion of money growth’s impact on stock prices cannot be ruled out.

Milton Friedman’s article on the optimum quantity of money has motivated much research since its publication. While most of the research has been on deterministic frameworks, a few models (e.g. Bewley 1983, Taub 1989) have extended the analysis to stochastic environments. The first two essays of the dissertation address the issue in two types of stochastic economies. In both the models, quadratic utility and linear constraints have been used to facilitate the use of Whiteman’s techniques (1985). The third essay introduces capital and derives the optimal rate of monetary policy in the presence of financial intermediaries. In the first essay a pure exchange model in which infinitely lived agents face stochastically varying endowments in each period is considered. In this model individuals can delay payment for purchases into the future with a credit card. It shows that the optimal rate of inflation is the same in a world where individuals are required to pay for their purchases immediately as in a world where they can delay payment with a credit card. Moreover, the optimal inflation rate may be positive or negative depending on the parameters of the model. Therefore, Bewley’s (1983) conjecture that deflation should proceed at a rate greater than the rate of time preference in a world of uncertainty is not generally true. The second essay derives the optimum quantity of money in a stochastic production economy. The optimum quantity of money literature largely ignores the effect of labor supply on money’s optimal rate of return. This paper examines the issue in an economy that is subject to stochastic shocks each period. It shows that incorporating production affects the optimal return on money in important ways. If there are individual specific shocks to preferences, then the optimal policy is highly inflationary. When individual preferences are subject to economy wide shocks, however, it is possible for either inflation or deflation to be optimal. The optimal policy depends on the weight individuals attach to the disutility of work and the weight individuals attach to the utility from holding money. Optimal policy responds positively to increases in the disutility from work and negatively to increases in the weight on consumption in the utility function. The paper therefore shows the sensitivity of the optimal policy on the way labor supply is modeled. Since such considerations do not arise in endowment economies, the optimal policy will generally change as one moves from endowment to production economies. In the third essay the Tobin effect and optimal monetary policy are analyzed when financial intermediaries develop endogenously. Providing a justification for the development of intermediaries similar to those found in the recent financial intermediation literature, we show that financial intermediation significantly affects investment decisions and monetary policy. In particular, the cost to intermediaries of providing substitutes of outside money play a critical role. Whether a decrease in the return on outside money will increase investment or not is found to depend on how the cost of providing alternative means of payment is affected. It is found that at low and moderate rates of inflation the Tobin effect remains valid. At high rates of inflation, however, the Tobin effect gets reversed. Further, since borrowers have private information regarding the outcome of the investment projects financed by the lenders, credit rationing may occur in equilibrium. We also derive the rate of return on money that maximizes social welfare. This optimal rate of return is not only dependent on the cost of the alternative means of payment, it also depends critically on whether credit is rationed in equilibrium or not. Finally, the paper highlights some of the distributional issues raised by a change in the rate of return on money. / Ph. D.

Uppsatsens titel: Penningmängd och huspriser - Finns det något samband? Ämne: Företagsekonomi, Kandidatuppsats, 15 hp Inlämningsdatum: 2009 – 05 – 29 Författare: Gunnar Levin, Viktor Sundling Handledare: Sven-Ola Carlsson Nyckelord: Penningmängd, Huspriser, Kointegration, M3, Fastigheter, FASTPI, Kvantitetsteorin Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att genom statistiska tester beskriva sambandet mellan penningmängdens utveckling och småhusfastigheters prisutveckling. Vi vill även försöka förklara ett eventuellt samband med kvantitetsteorin. Tillvägagångssätt: I denna uppsats har vi genom att fastställa ett kointegrationssamband mellan tidsserievariabler kunnat genomföra en regressionsanalys mellan penningmängdsutvecklingen och prisutvecklingen för småhus avsedda för permanent boende. Slutsatser: Vi har funnit ett långsiktigt samband mellan utvecklingen i penningmängden uttryckt som M3 och prisutvecklingen för småhus avsedda för permanent boende. Sambandet mellan M3 och fastighetsprisindex för småhus kan förklaras med kvantitetsteorin. / Thesis title: Money supply and house prices - Is there any connection? Course: Business administration, Bachelor’s Essay, 15 credits Date of handing: 2009 – 05 – 29 Authors: Gunnar Levin, Viktor Sundling Advisor: Sven-Ola Carlsson Keywords: Money supply, House prices, Cointegration, M3, Real estate, FASTPI, Quantity Theory of Money Purpose of study: The purpose of this study is through statistical tests describe the relation between development in money supply and development in owner-occupied one- or two-dwelling buildings. We also want to describe a possible relation between the variables with the quantity theory. Method: In this essay, we have been able to perform a regression analysis between money supply and owner-occupied one- or two-dwelling buildings, by establishing cointegration between time variables. Conclusion: We have discovered a long term relation between the development in money supply defined as M3 and the development in prices for owner-occupied one- or two-dwelling buildings. The relation between M3 and real estate index can be explained with the quantity theory of money.

En 1965, Allais proposa une reformulation tout à fait originale de la théorie quantitative de la monnaie. Il s’agit de la théorie Héréditaire et Relativiste (HR) de la demande de monnaie. Apparue une décennie après la reformulation friedmanienne et la publication du modèle de Cagan (1956) relatif aux hyperinflations, cette théorie n’a pas réussi à se frayer une voie dans le champ de l’analyse monétaire. Plusieurs raisons ont concouru au non succès de cette théorie dont notamment son cadre conceptuel tout à fait étrange par rapport aux approches alors dominantes. L’objet de notre thèse est d’interroger l’apport de la théorie HR en tant que reformulation de la théorie quantitative et ce par rapport à la question de la stabilité de la demande de monnaie.Cette thèse est composée de trois parties. La première partie développe certains préludes nécessaires à l'analyse de la théorie HR (partie I). Les deux dernières parties contiennent les deux principaux résultats de notre travail. Le premier est que la théorie HR constitue une reformulation « ontologique » de la théorie quantitative, qui passe par la considération du temps psychologique-le temps tel que ressenti par l’ensemble des agents économiques (Partie II). Le second résultat est que la théorie HR, en tant que théorie macroéconomique, est grosse d’un changement paradigmatique qui fait écho à celui introduit en physique par la théorie de la relativité : pour certains phénomènes monétaires, la théorie HR substitue à l’explication par des relations causales entre agrégats une explication par la seule déformation psychologique du temps (Partie III). / In 1965, Allais proposed an original restatement of the quantity theory of money. It is the Hereditary and Relativistic (HR) theory of the money demand. Published a decade after Friedman’s restatement and Cagan’s model of hyperinflations, the HR theory remained unknown. Many reasons contributed to the lack of success of this theory, one of which is related to its conceptual framework which is incongruous with the standard approach. The HR theory is based upon the notion of time relativity from a psychological point of view, and the idea that the behavior of economic agents is conditioned by a hereditary effect of past events.Our thesis aims to investigate the contribution of the HR theory as a restatement of the quantity theory with regard to the question of the stability of money demand.The thesis is composed of three parts. The first part contains necessary preludes to the analysis of the HR theory (Part I). The second and the third part contain the two main results of the thesis. The first one is that the HR theory represents an ontological restatement of the quantity theory based on the notion of “psychological time”- time as experienced by the collectivity as a whole (Part II). The second result is that the HR theory, as a macroeconomic theory, contains a paradigmatic shift which echoes the one introduced in physics by the theory of relativity: in the HR theory, an explanation of some monetary phenomena using the psychological distortion of time is substituted to the explanation through causal relations between aggregates (Part III).

La théorie quantitative de la monnaie reliant systématiquement la croissance de la masse monétaire en circulation et la hausse généralisée des prix, est l’une des conceptions les plus anciennes en science économique. Après avoir fait l’objet de multiples controverses selon les époques, elle semble aujourd’hui peu préoccuper l’attention des économistes. Les désaccords portèrent souvent sur la dichotomie, la neutralité de la monnaie, la proportionnalité de la relation monnaie-Prix, les propriétés de la fonction de demande de monnaie, et sur l’éxogénéité de l’offre de monnaie. Cette théorie influence officieusement la conduite de la politique monétaire de la plupart des banques centrales qui se fixent des mesures conventionnelles de contrôler la quantité de monnaie pour limiter l’inflation. Dans de nombreux manuels d’économie, la théorie quantitative est encore mobilisée pour expliquer les hausses généralisées des prix.En recourant aux méthodes de l’économie politique qui consistent à opposer les faits et la théorie des économistes, notre thèse consiste à proposer une évaluation critique des doctrines monétaires quantitativistes dans l’interprétation des crises historiques de hausse des prix. Notre démarche s’appuie en particulier sur une réinterprétation factuelle de deux grandes crises des prix connues où nous cherchons à voir si la théorie quantitative y est exclusivement pertinente. Ainsi la « révolution des prix » du XVIe en Europe et l’hyperinflation allemande sont deux épisodes d’une crise des prix où la théorie quantitative s’avère insuffisante pour expliquer les problèmes étudiés. Pourtant la conception quantitativiste de la monnaie s’est beaucoup métamorphosée au fil du temps, s’appuyant à chaque fois sur les corpus théoriques de l’équilibre et de la valeur, solidaires d’une unité méthodologique assise sur la dichotomie. Notre thèse est revenue de manière critique et détaillée sur toutes les facettes de cette métamorphose, à partir de la contribution des auteurs classiques jusqu’aux néoclassiques, tout en mettant un accent sur l’apport de Keynes, pour rendre compte de la longue continuité de la pensée quantitative dans la science économique. / The Quantity Theory of money which always links the increase in the high-Powered money supply and the general rise in prices is one of the oldest concepts in economics. After to have been the subject of many controversies at different times, it seems nowadays to hold less attention from the economists because the dispute is dissipated in a kind of religious choice to believe or not to believe to quantity theory. This theory officially influences the monetary policy of most of central banks in the world that bind conventional measures to control the money supply to curb inflation process. In many orthodox economics’ textbooks, the quantity theory is still deployed in perpetuum to explain the price crisis in history.By using the methods of political economy, we will counterbalance the economic facts like they are recorded and the economic theory; our thesis aims to provide a critical assessment of orthodox monetary doctrines based on the quantity theory, in the interpretation of historical price crises. Our approach relies on a factual reinterpretation of two major historical price crises in Europe, and we will seek to see if the quantity theory is relevant. Thereby, the “price revolution” of the sixteenth in Europe and the German hyperinflation are two periods of price crisis where the quantity theory is insufficient to explain all sides of the problem studied. Yet the quantity conception of money is much transformed over time, based each time on the doctrines of equilibrium and value. Our thesis is back critically in details on all aspects of this transformation: the contribution from the classics until the neoclassical School, all with a focus on the contribution of Keynes, to account for the long survival of quantity thinking in monetary economics.

Ce travail de thèse est consacré à l’étude de la participation de James Laurence Laughlin (1850-19133) à l’unification monétaire et bancaire américaine de 1870 à 1913. L’histoire des débat monétaires et bancaires américains de la fin du dix-neuvième et du début du vingtième sièclen’accorde pas une place importante à cet auteur pourtant incontournable. Laughlin devient unéconomiste académique réputé en tant que premier Head Professor à l’université de Chicago et en fondant le Journal of Political Economy en 1892. Il s’affirme comme expert économique grâce à son expérience de money doctoring à Saint-Domingue en 1894 puis sa participation à la commission monétaire d’Indianapolis en 1897-98. Le rapport final de cette commission rédigé par Laughlin est utilisé pour l’écriture du Gold Standard Act voté en 1900 qui institue légalement un système d’étalon-or aux États-Unis. Par la suite, il prend part à la conception du Federal Reserve Act de 1913, aux côtés de son ancien étudiant Henry Parker Willis. La théorie monétaire de Laughlin se veut être une critique de la théorie quantitative de la monnaie et une défense de la mise en place d’un système d’étalon-or. Pour ce faire, il mobilise des éléments issus de la théorie des auteurs de la Banking School anglaise. Il explique alors la formation des prix par des déterminants non monétaires et inclut le crédit et la spéculation à sa théorie en distinguant un crédit « normal » et un crédit « anormal ». / This Ph.D. dissertation studies James Laurence Laughlin (1850-1913) participation in the American monetary and banking unification. The history of American monetary and banking debates of the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century does not place emphasis on this author while he is unavoidable. He becomes a renowned academic economist by being the first Head Professor of the University of Chicago and the founder of the Journal of Political Economy in 1892. He also acquires the status of economic expert by doing a money doctoring in Santo Domingo in 1894 and by participating in the Indianapolis Monetary Commission in 1897-98. The final report of this commission written by Laughlin had been used to write the Gold Standard Act, passed in 1900 and establishing a gold standard system in the United States. Subsequently, he gets involved in designing the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 alongside his former student Henry Parker Willis. Laughlin’s theory is meant to be a critique of the quantity theory of money. He includes elements from the English Banking School authors’ theory. He explains the formation of prices by non-monetary determinants and includes credit and speculation in his theory by distinguishing a “normal” credit and an “abnormal” credit.