La inflamación es un factor clave en la patogénesis de diversas enfermedades de la retina que eventualmente terminan en la pérdida de la visión y ceguera, tales como la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad (DMAE), la retinopatía diabética (RD), endolftalmitis bacteriana y la uveítis. En este contexto, las células del epitelio pigmentario de la retina (EPR) son esenciales para mantener la integridad estructural y funcional de la retina y se ha demostrado que, en estas condiciones patológicas, el EPR puede mediar importantes funciones inmunológicas y participar activamente de la respuesta inflamatoria. El objetivo principal de la presente tesis doctoral fue dilucidar los mecanismos moleculares involucrados en la respuesta inflamatoria del EPR. En particular nos propusimos estudiar el rol de la vía de la fosfolipasa D (PLD), generadora de mensajeros lipídicos, en dos modelos de injuria inflamatoria: i) inducida por lipopolisacárido (LPS) y ii) por altas concentraciones de glucosa (HG), a modo de simular las hiperglucemias características de la diabetes. En el desarrollo de esta tesis utilizamos dos líneas celulares de EPR de origen humano, las líneas ARPE-19 y D407. Las PLD clásicas hidrolizan fosfatidilcolina (PC) para generar un segundo mensajero lipídico, el ácido fosfatídico (PA) y colina. El PA puede desfosforilarse por las lípido fosfato fosfohidrolasas (LPP) para generar diacilglicerol (DAG), otro lípido bioactivo. Por lo tanto, la vía de PLD/LPP puede modular la actividad de las proteínas que responden al DAG, como las proteínas quinasas C (PKC) y también de proteínas que son moduladas por el PA, como mTOR (del inglés, mammalian target of rapamycin), entre otras. Resultados previos de nuestro laboratorio habían demostrado la activación de la vía PLD y la participación de las isoformas clásicas (PLD1 y PLD2) en la respuesta inflamatoria de las células del EPR expuestas a LPS. En el capítulo I estudiamos el rol de la vía PLD en la activación de la señalización por PKC en las células del EPR expuestas a LPS. Demostramos que ambas PLD clásicas son necesarias para la activación de isoformas convencionales de PKC (α y βII), mientras que la activación de la isoforma novel PKCε solo es dependiente de la PLD1. Evidenciamos además que la PKCε media la supervivencia de las células del EPR expuestas al LPS promoviendo una menor activación de la caspasa-3 y aumentando la expresión de Bcl-2 y la activación de Akt. Por otra parte, las PKCα y β no estarían involucradas en la pérdida de la viabilidad inducida por el LPS. En conclusión, la vía PLD1-PKCε media la supervivencia de las células del EPR previniendo las señales apoptóticas inducidas por el LPS. En el capítulo II caracterizamos el modelo de injuria celular inducido por HG. La exposición de las células del EPR a HG indujo la generación de especies reactivas de oxígeno (ROS), la activación de la caspasa-3 y la disminución de la funcionalidad mitocondrial (parámetro de viabilidad celular). Demostramos además que los niveles elevados de glucosa inducen en las células del EPR la activación temprana y concatenada de la vía PLD y de la quinasa regulada por factores extracelulares (ERK1/2), la fosforilación del inhibidor de κB (IκB) y la activación del factor de transcripción nuclear κB (NFκB). La activación del NFκB inducida por la HG se correlacionó con el incremento en la expresión de los ARNm de interleuquinas (IL) proinflamatorias (IL-6, IL-8) y de la ciclooxigenasa-2 (COX-2). Finalmente, demostramos que en las células del EPR expuestas a HG los inhibidores farmacológicos de PLD1 (VU0359595) y de PLD2 (VU0285655-1) previenen la expresión de los mediadores proinflamatorios, la activación de la caspasa-3 y la reducción en la viabilidad celular. Los resultados obtenidos en las células expuestas a LPS y al modelo de injuria inducida por HG demuestran que el rol de las PLD en las células del EPR difiere según cuál sea el origen de la injuria inflamatoria. Estos hallazgos indican la importancia de conocer los mecanismos moleculares involucrados en la respuesta inflamatoria del EPR desencadenada por distintos estímulos. Nuestros resultados postulan a las isoformas clásicas de PLD como posibles dianas terapéuticas para distintas enfermedades inflamatorias de la retina. / Inflammation is a key factor in the pathogenesis of several retinal diseases that eventually end in vision loss and blindness, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and uveitis. In this context, retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells are essential to maintain the integrity and function of the retina and it has been shown that, under these pathological conditions, RPE cells can mediate important immunological functions and actively participate in the inflammatory response. The main objective of this Ph. thesis was to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in the inflammatory response of the RPE. In particular, we wanted to study the role of the lipid messenger generating phospholipase D (PLD) pathway in two inflammatory injury models: i) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and ii) by high glucose (HG) concentrations, in order to simulate the typical hyperglycemia of diabetes. To this end, we used two human RPE cell lines: ARPE-19 and D407. Classical PLDs hydrolyze phosphatidylcholine (PC) to generate the lipid second messenger, phosphatidic acid (PA), and choline. PA can be further dephosphorylated by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPP) in order to generate diacylglycerol (DAG), another lipid messenger. Thus, the PLD/LPP pathway can modulate the activity of DAG-responding proteins, such as protein kinases C (PKCs) and PA-responding proteins such as mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), among others. Previous results from our laboratory demonstrated the activation of the PLD pathway and the participation of classical PLD isoforms (PLD1 and PLD2) in the inflammatory response of RPE cells exposed to LPS. In the first chapter of this thesis, we studied the role of the PLD pathway in the activation of LPS-induced PKC signaling in RPE cells. We demonstrated that both PLDs are necessary for the activation of conventional PKC isoforms (PKCα/βII) while the activation of the novel PKCε is dependent only on PLD1. We also showed that PKCε mediates the survival of RPE cells exposed to LPS by promoting less activation of caspase-3 and increasing Bcl-2 expression and activation of Akt. In contrast, PKCα and β may not be involved in the cell viability loss induced by LPS. In conclusion, the PLD1-PKCε pathway mediates RPE cell survival by preventing apoptotic signals induced by LPS. In chapter II we characterized the model of cellular injury induced by HG. RPE cell exposure to HG induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, caspase-3 activation and reduced mitochondrial functionality (cell viability parameter). We also demonstrated that in RPE cells high glucose levels induce the early and concatenated activation of the PLD pathway and of extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2), the phosphorylation of inhibitor of κB (IκB) and the activation of nuclear factor κB (NFκB). The activation NFκB induced by HG was found to correlate with the increased expression of proinflammatory interleukins (IL-6, IL-8) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA. Finally, we demonstrated that in RPE cells exposed to HG pharmacologycal inhibitors of PLD1 (VU0359595) and PLD2 (VU0285655-1) prevent the expression of proinflammation mediators, the activation of caspase-3 and the reduction in cell viability. The results obtained in RPE cells exposed to LPS and in the model of cellular injury induced by HG demonstrate that the role of PLD isoforms in RPE cells differs depending on the origin of the inflammatory injury. These findings indicate the importance of knowing the molecular mechanisms involved in the RPE inflammatory response elicited by different stimuli. Our results postulate classical PLD isoforms as possible therapeutic targets for several retinal inflammatory diseases. / TEXTO PARCIAL en período de teletrabajo

La leucine zipper de la rétine neurale (Nrl) joue un rôle central dans le développement et l'homéostasie des bâtonnets en activant I'expression de gènes tels que le photopigment Rhodopsine. Nrl est aussi associé à la Rétinite Pigmentaire, faisant ainsi de ce gène un modèle intéressant pour la compréhension des programmes contrôlant le développement et I'homéostasie des photorécepteurs.Ce travail de thèse vise à caractériser les mécanismes régulateurs de I'expression de Nr/ au cours du développement rétinien. L'électroporation in vivo de vecteurs rapporteurs dans des rétines de souris en développement, a révélé des séquences minimales de promoteur Nr/ nécessaires à une expression spécifique dans les photorécepteurs. Nous avons identifié RORI3 comme facteur requis pour cette expression, et montré que les facteurs OTX2, CRX et CREB s'accrochent aussi directement à des régions régulatrices particulières du promoteur. Nous avons construit un virus adéno-associé (AAV) contenant un promoteur minimal Nrl de 0.3 kb, et montré qu'il est adapté à la délivrance de gène spécifiquement dans les photorécepteurs.Nous avons montré que NRL, CRX et NR2E3, les régulateurs principaux de la Rhodopsine, ont une expression rythmique au cours de 24 h, et que l'expression cyclique de Nr/ peut être due à l'activation par RORp, un composant l'horloge circadienne. Enfin, nous avons identifié un nouveau facteur de transcription, NonO, au niveau de la région du promoteur proximal de la Rhodopsine, qui en combinaison avec NRL et CRX, active le promoteur de la Rhodopsine. L'invalidation de NonO au cours du développement rétinien a prouvé son implication pour le développement et I'homéostasie des bâtonnets. / The Neural Retina Leucine zipper transcription factor (Nrl) plays a central role in rod photoreceptor development and homeostasis, by activating the expression of rod-specific genes such as the visual photopigment, Rhodopsin. Nrlhave been also associated with Retinitis Pigmentosa, making this gene an interesting model for understanding genetic programs controlling photoreceptors development and homeostasis.This thesis work aimed at characterizing regulatory mechanisms of Nr/ expression during retinal development. Using in vivo electroporation of reporter vectors carrying distinct portions of Nrlpromoter into neonatal mouse retina, we identified minimal sequences required for expression photoreceptors-specific expression. We identified RORI3 as being required for this expression and showed that OTX2, CRX and CREB transcription factors also directly bind to the defined regulatory regions.We designed a novel adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector containing a minimal Nrl promoter fragment of 0.3 kb, and showed that it is well-suited for gene delivery specifically into photoreceptors.We also showed that NRL, CRX, and NR2E3, the main transcriptional regulators of Rhodopsin, display rhythmic expression over 24 h. and that Nrl might undergo cyclic activation by RORB which is part of the photoreceptor circadian clock. Finally, we investigated the role of a novel Rhodopsin transcriptional regulator, NonO, identified in theRhodopsin proximal promoter region. We demonstrated that NonO co-activates Rhodopsin promoter along with NRL and CRX. By knocking down this gene during retinal development we provided evidence for its role in rod development and homeostasis.

The retina is prone to oxidative stress from many factors which are also involved in the pathogenesis of degenerative diseases. In this study, we used the application of blue light as a physiological stress factor. The aim of this study was to identify the major source of intracellular ROS that mediates blue light-induced detrimental effects on cells which may lead to cytotoxicity. We hypothesized that outer segments are the major source of blue light induced ROS generation. In photoreceptors, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (Nox) enzymes and the recently found respiratory chain complexes may represent a major source for reactive oxygen species (ROS), beside mitochondria and chromophores. Therefore, we investigated this hypothesis and analysed the exact localization of the ROS source in photoreceptors in an organotypic culture system for mouse retinas. Whole eyeball cultures were irradiated with visible blue light (405 nm) with an output power of 1 mW/cm2. Blue light impingement lead to an increase of ROS production (detected by H2DCFDA in live retinal explants), which was particularly strong in the photoreceptor outer segments. Nox-2 and Nox-4 proteins are sources of ROS in blue light irradiated photoreceptors; the Nox inhibitor apocynin decreased ROS stimulated by blue light. Concomitantly, enzyme SOD-1, a member of the antioxidant defense system, indicator molecules of protein oxidation (CML) and lipid oxidation (MDA and 4-HNE) were also increased in the outer segments. Interestingly, outer segments showed a mitochondrial-like membrane potential which was demonstrated using two dyes (JC-1 and TMRE) normally exclusively associated with mitochondria. As in mitochondria, these dyes indicated a decrease of the membrane potential in hypoxic states or cell stress situations. The present study demonstrates that ROS generation and oxidative stress occurs directly in the outer segments of photoreceptors after blue light irradiation.

Die Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Anschwellen von Neuronen und Gliazellen der Netzhaut, was einen wichtigen pathogenetischen Faktor des Netzhautödems darstellt. Osteopontin ist ein neuroprotektiver Faktor, der durch GDNF-Stimulation (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor) aus Müllerzellen ausgeschüttet wird. Die durch Osteopontin vermittelte Inhibition der osmotischen Zellschwellung von Müllerzellen der Ratte in Anwesenheit von Bariumionen oder H2O2 wird beschrieben und es wird dargestellt, dass Osteopontin keinen Einfluss auf die osmotische Zellschwellung der Bipolarzellen hat. Der für Müllerzellen beschriebene Effekt war dosisabhängig mit einer mittleren effektiven Konzentration von ca. 0,6 ng/ml. Durch den Einsatz pharmakologischer Rezeptor- oder Enzymblocker bzw. Antikörper werden die Schritte der Osteopontinwirkung identifiziert. Osteopontin induziert die Freisetzung von VEGF, Glutamat, ATP und Adenosin aus Müllerzellen. Die Osteopontinwirkung wurde verhindert durch die Blockade von spannungsabhängigen Natriumkanälen, T-Typ Calciumkanälen, Kalium- und Chloridkanälen. Der Effekt ist außerdem abhängig von einem intrazellulären Calciumsignal, der Aktivierung der Phospholipase C und der Proteinkinase C und der vesikulären Exozytose von Glutamat. Die Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass der neuroprotektive Effekt von Osteopontin teilweise durch das Verhindern eines Anschwellens der Müllerzellen und durch die Induktion einer Freisetzung von VEGF und Adenosin vermittelt wird.

Cranial placodes are transient thickenings of the vertebrate embryonic head ectoderm that will give rise to sensory (olfactory, lens, and otic) and non-sensory (hypophyseal) components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In most vertebrate embryos, these four sensory placodes undergo invagination. Epithelial invagination is a morphological process in which flat cell sheets transform into three-dimensional structures, like an epithelial pit/cup. The process of invagination is crucial during development as it plays an important role for the formation of the lens, inner ear, nasal cavity, and adenohypophysis. Using the chick as the model system the following questions were addressed. What signals are involved in placode invagination? Is there any common regulatory molecular mechanism for all sensory placode invagination, or is it controlled by unique molecular codes for each individual placode? Are placode invagination and acquisition of placode-specific identities two independent developmental processes or coupled together? To address this we used in vivo assays like electroporation and whole embryo culture. Our in vivo results provide evidence that RhoA and F-actin rearrangements, apical constriction, cell elongation and epithelial invagination are regulated by a common BMP (Bone morphogenetic protein) dependent molecular mechanism. In addition, our results show that epithelial invagination and acquisition of placode-specific identities are two independent developmental processes. BMP signals have been shown to be essential for lens development and patterning of the retina. However, the spatial and temporal requirement of BMP activity during early events of lens development has remained elusive. Moreover, when and how retinal cells are specified, and whether the lens plays any role for the early development of the retina is not completely known. To address these questions, we have used gain- and loss-of-function analyses in chick explant and intact embryo assays. Here, we show that during lens development BMP activity is both required and sufficient to induce the lens specific marker, L-Maf. After the L-Maf upregulation the cells are no longer dependent on BMP signaling for the next step of fiber cell differentiation, which is characterized by up-regulation of δ-crystallin expression. Regarding the specification of retinal cells our results provide evidence that at blastula stages, BMP signals inhibit the acquisition of eye-field character. Furthermore, from optic vesicle stages, BMP signals emanating from the lens are essential for maintaining eye-field identity, inhibiting telencephalic character and inducing neural retina cells.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Anatomy / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / abstract / Anatomy / Master / Master of Philosophy

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No description available.

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