L'objectif de cette thèse repose sur le développement de micelles de polymères polyioniques, vecteurs de molécules thérapeutiques en immunothérapie avec des cellules dendritiques (DCs). Elles sont préparées à partir d'un copolymère à blocs double-hydrophiles, l'acide polyméthacrylique-b-polyoxyde d'éthylène (PMAA-b-POE) et d'un contre ion de charge opposée. De taille nanométrique, elles sont capables d'encapsuler des molécules thérapeutiques selon une association tripartite originale et de se désassembler à pH acide pour permettre leur libération dans le milieu endosomal.Le premier axe de travail a porté sur l'évaluation de la propriété des copolymères à induire un échappement endosomal en fonction de leur masse molaire en utilisant deux modèles membranaires (liposomes et globules rouges). La complexation des copolymères de masses molaires différentes avec la poly-L-lysine comme contre-ion a permis l'obtention de micelles avec des propriétés d'échappement endosomal variables. Cette propriété est intéressante car en fonction de la stratégie thérapeutique adoptée, elle orientera le choix de la masse molaire du copolymère pour la formulation des micelles.Le second axe a consisté en l'application de ces micelles pour la vectorisation d'un peptide modèle (peptide OVA) dans les DCs. La capacité des micelles à encapsuler le peptide et à le libérer au niveau des compartiments endosomaux a été évaluée par des techniques de spectrofluorimétrie et de microscopie confocale. Enfin, l'efficacité de présentation du peptide formulé dans les différentes micelles a été mise en évidence et a montré l'amélioration de la présentation par les DCs du peptide formulé dans les micelles comparé au peptide non formulé. Cette présentation est nettement supérieure en utilisant les micelles composées de copolymères de masse molaire élevée qui n'entraînent pas d'échappement endosomal.Le troisième axe de recherche a reposé sur la transfection des DCs avec des micelles de siRNA dirigés contre la protéine de surface CD86. Seules les micelles composées de copolymères de faible masse molaire ont permis l'encapsulation du siRNA et la baisse de l'expression de la protéine CD86 à la surface des DCs. Afin d'optimiser la capacité des micelles à encapsuler et transfecter les DCs, la formulation des micelles a été optimisée en remplaçant la PLL par un autre polycation la polyethylene imine PEI. Ces micelles polyioniques à base de copolymère PMAA-b-POE apparaissent donc comme des vecteurs de molécules d'intérêt thérapeutique prometteurs pour les cellules dendritiques en immunothérapie ou en thérapie génique. / The aim of the thesis work is based on the development of polymeric micelles vectors of therapeutic molecules in immunotherapy with dendritic cells (DCs). They are composed of a double hydrophilic blocks copolymers, poly(methacrylic acid)-b-poly(ethylene oxide) (PMAA-b-PEO) and an oppositely charged polyion. They are caracterized by a nanometric size, a capacity to encapsulate therapeutic molecules according to a tripartite association and are able to disassemble at acidic pH allowing the release of their cargo.The first part of this work has focused on the evaluation of the endosomal escape property of copolymers based on their molecular weight by using two membrane models (liposomes and red blood cells). Complexation of different molecular weight copolymers with poly- L- lysine as counter ion allowed the formation of micelles with variable endosomal escape properties. This property is interesting because according to the adopted therapeutic strategy, it will guide the choice of the copolymer micelles for formulation.The second part consisted of the application of these micelles for the vectorization of a model peptide (OVA peptide) in DCs. The ability of micelles to encapsulate and release this peptide in the endosomal compartments was assessed by fluorescence spectroscopy and confocal microscopy techniques. Finally, the effectiveness of the OVA presentation formulated in the different type of micelles has been demonstrated and shown that the peptide presentation by DCs was improved when it was formulated in micelles compared to unformulated peptide. This presentation was much higher using micelles composed of high molecular weight copolymers that do not involve endosomal escape.The third part of the research was based on the transfection of DCs with siRNA directed against CD86 protein surface. Only micelles composed of low molecular weight copolymers allowed the encapsulation of siRNA molecules and decreased the expression of CD86 protein on DCs surface. To increase the ability of micelles to encapsulate and transfect DCs, the micelle formulation was optimized by changing the PLL with another polycation PEI.These polyion micelles based PMAA-b-PEO copolymers appear as vectors of therapeutic molecules for promising strategies with dendritic cells such as vaccination and gene therapy.

Il a été montré que la cavitation acoustique pouvait se révéler utile dans l'administration de médicaments pour de nombreuses applications biologiques et médicales. Cette thèse commence par une présentation de la cavitation ultrasonore et des mécanismes d'action mis en jeu pour la délivrance de médicaments. A la fin de ce cette synthèse, un dispositif à deux transducteurs ultrasonores disposés de manière confocale est présenté pour résoudre certains des problèmes actuels dans le domaine. Il est ensuite mis en oeuvre dans différentes études de faisabilité. La thèse est organisée en 5 chapitres : 1. L'utilisation de la cavitation acoustique dans un contexte biomédical est présentée ici dans une revue générale. Ce chapitre comprend l'état de l'art pour la génération de cavitation, les techniques expérimentales qui sont actuellement mises en oeuvre pour la mesure de la cavitation, et les approches cliniques et précliniques pour l'utilisation de la cavitation in vivo pour différents types de tissu biologique. 2. Le dispositif ultrasonore utilisé pour toutes les études de cette thèse est ensuite décrit. Il est caractérisé acoustiquement et comparé avec un simple transducteur dans le but de démontrer son efficacité pour la génération de la cavitation. Cette comparaison est d'abord faite par une quantification chimique du niveau de cavitation. A puissance constante, le dispositif à deux transducteurs confocaux est bien plus efficace pour générer de la cavitation. Les causes de cette observation, notamment la réduction de la propagation non-linéaire et la stabilisation du nuage des bulles par les forces Bjerknes, sont ensuite étudiées par des mesures acoustiques, des simulations de pression en régime linéaire et un suivi par une caméra ultra rapide des nuages de bulles induits. 3. Le prototype confocal est utilisé in vivo sur des tumeurs sous cutanées en conjonction avec des liposomes. Dans un premier temps, des essais sous IRM démontrent la possibilité de larguer le contenu des liposomes localement par la cavitation inertielle délivrée par le dispositif. Une seconde étude avec une formulation liposomale de doxorubicine a permis de démontrer l'amélioration de la réponse thérapeutique de la chimiothérapie après application de la cavitation inertielle.. 4. Une étude de faisabilité de l'interférence de l'ARN (RNAi) sur un petit nombre d'animaux est réalisée avec le dispositif confocal et des molécules de siRNA encapsulées dans des liposomes Les expériences sont conduites in vivo avec une xénogreffe de tumeur de sein humain. Après une phase de réglage des paramètres ultrasonores pour limiter la toxicité du traitement, on observe une inhibition significative du gène ciblé. 5. Une deuxième étude de faisabilité est réalisée pour étudier la potentialisation de la chimiothérapie avec l'évérolimus dans un modèle de chondrosarcome de rat. Les traitements ultrasonores et les chimiothérapies sont répétés. Sur un petit nombre d'animaux, on montre l'innocuité du traitement ultrasonore, et l'efficacité en conjonction avec l'agent anti tumoraux, évérolimus / Acoustic cavitation has been shown to be a useful tool in drug delivery for many different biological tissues and indications, and this thesis aims to contribute to the knowledge of cavitation from a drug delivery perspective. This thesis seeks to synthesize the current knowledge and practice concerning acoustic cavitation in a biomedical context, and to present a high intensity confocal ultrasound (US) prototype to address some of the current problems in the field and to give a proof of concept for the therapeutic efficacy of such a prototype. The thesis is organized in 5 chapters: 1. The use of acoustic cavitation in a biomedical context is presented here in a general review. This review comprises the state of the art for cavitation generation, experimental techniques currently being implemented for the measurement of cavitation, and the clinical and preclinical approaches to the use of cavitation in vivo on a tissue by tissue basis. 2. The high intensity confocal US prototype used for all studies in this thesis is presented here. It is characterized in terms of the advantages it gives for the generation of cavitation. Enhancement of cavitation is first demonstrated chemometrically with a fluorescent dosimeter compared to a single transducer at the ultrasonic focus. The mechanisms for cavitation enhancement are then investigated with acoustic measurements, linear pressure simulations, and high speed camera data. 3. The confocal US prototype in used in conjunction with a liposomal formulation of doxorubicin is performed in which a therapeutic enhancement of tumor inhibition is presented. The mechanism of this enhancement is investigated with liposomally encapsulated lanthanide contrast agents and magnetic resonance imaging. 4. A small scale proof of concept for the use of RNA interference using the confocal prototype, and liposomally encapsulated siRNA molecules. The experiments are performed In vivo with a xenograft of human breast tumor. This study also includes data for the safety of the US exposure on a mouse treated one time. 5. Another small scale proof of concept of the use of the confocal device on potentiating chemotherapy with the drug everolimus in a rat chondrosarcoma model. The studies presented here also investigate the use of multiple US exposures on the same tumor in a combined drug / US treatment regimen

The endocrine heart synthesises and secretes two polypeptide hormones: the natriuretic peptides (NP) atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP). The biological actions of these hormones serve both acutely and chronically to reduce systemic blood pressure and hemodynamic load to the heart, thus contributing to the maintenance of cardiorenal homeostasis. Considerable effort has been focused on the elucidation of the mechanistic underlying ANF and BNP gene expression and secretion but much remains to be determined regarding specific molecular events involved in the cardiocyte secretory function. These hormones are produced by the atrial muscle cells (cardiocytes), which display a dual secretory/muscle phenotype. In contrast, ventricular cardiocytes display mainly a muscle phenotype. Comparatively little information is available regarding the genetic background for this important phenotypic difference with particular reference to the endocrine function of the heart. We postulated that comparison of gene expression profiles between atrial and ventricular muscles would help identify transcripts that underlie the phenotypic differences associated with the endocrine function of the heart as well as identify signaling pathways involved in its regulation. The cardiac atrial and ventricular transcriptomes were analyzed using oligonucleotide microarrays under normal or chronically induced aortocaval shunt volume-overload conditions. Transcriptional differences were validated by RT-PCR and transcripts of interest were knocked-down by RNAi. Comparison of gene expression profiles in the rat heart revealed a total of 1415 differentially expressed genes between normal atrial and ventricular tissues. Functional classification and pathway analysis identified numerous transcripts involved in mechanosensing, vesicle trafficking, hormone secretion, and G protein signaling. Volume-overloaded animals exhibited a progressive increase in cardiac mass over the four-week time course, an increase in expression of known hypertrophic genes, as well as the differential expression of 700 genes within the atria. Volume-overload specifically downregulated the accessory protein for heterotrimeric G protein signaling RASD1 in the atria. In vitro, knockdown of RASD1 in the atrial-derived HL-1 cells, significantly increased ANF secretion, demonstrating a previously unknown negative modulator role for RASD1. The data developed in this investigation provides insight into the expression profiles of genes particularly centered on the secretory function of the heart under normal and chronic hemodynamic overload conditions. Genome-wide expression profile analysis identified RASD1 as being differentially expressed between cardiac tissues as well as being modulated by chronic volume overload. RASD1 emerges as a tonic inhibitor of ANF secretion. The novel function identified herein for RASD1 in the atria is of considerable interest given the fact that secretory impairment of the cardiac natriuretic hormones can negatively impact cardiovascular homeostasis.

Proper development of skeletal muscle occurs through a highly complex process where activation and repression of genes are essential. Control of this process is regulated by timely and spatial expression of specific transcription factors (TFs). Six1 and Six4 are homeodomain TFs known to be essential for skeletal muscle development in mice. Using the C2C12 cell line, a model for skeletal muscle differentiation, I used a functional genomics approach, employing siRNA specific to both these TFs, to characterize their role in skeletal myogenesis. To identify the genes that are regulated by both these TFs, gene expression profiling by microarray of cells treated with siRNA against Six1 and/or Six4 was performed. The knock-down of these TFs caused lower expression of markers of terminal differentiation genes in addition to an impairment of myoblast fusion and differentiation. Interestingly, transcript profiling of cells treated with siRNA against myogenin revealed that several of the Six1 and Six4 target genes are also regulated by myogenin. Through a combination of bioinformatic analyses it was also found that specific knock-down of Six4 causes an up-regulation of genes involved in mitosis and the cell cycle. In summary, these results show that Six1 and Six4 can both independently regulate different genes, but can also cooperate together with other TFs where they play an important role in the proper regulation of skeletal myogenesis.

Les membres du genre Morbillivirus, famille Paramyxoviridae sont responsables de graves maladies chez l'homme et les animaux, comme la rougeole, la peste bovine (RP) et la peste des petits ruminants (PPR). Malgré l'existence de vaccins efficaces contre ces maladies, des traitements spécifiques sont souhaitables. L'inhibition de la réplication de ces virus peut-être acquise par interférence ARN (ARNi), un mécanisme d'inhibition post-transcriptionnel déclenché par des séquences courtes d'ARN double-brin (siARN). Le CIRAD a précédemment identifié 3 siARNs ciblant des régions conservées du gène de la nucléoprotéine virale capables d'inhiber au moins 80% de la réplication in vitro des virus de la rougeole, de la RP et de la PPR. Cependant, un problème majeur dans la stratégie d'ARNi est le risque d'apparition de virus résistants. Dans cette étude, nous avons évalué le risque d'apparition de mutants d'échappement du virus de la PPR sous pression de sélection de 3 siARNs appliqués seul ou en association après plusieurs transfections successives in vitro. Excepté pour la combinaison des 3 siARNs, le virus a échappé à l'ARNi après 3 à 20 passages consécutifs, avec des mutations simples ou multiples (synonymes ou pas) ou une délétion de 6 nucléotides dans la zone cible des siARN. Ces résultats mettent en évidence une plasticité génomique inattendue des morbillivirus surtout illustrée par cette délétion non-délétère d'une partie significative d'un gène viral essentiel, qui devrait être considérée comme un obstacle à l'utilisation de l'ARNi comme thérapie antivirale. Cependant, l'utilisation combinée de 3 siARNs peut être proposée pour diminuer le risque d'échappement aux siARNs. / Viruses in the genus Morbillivirus, within the family Paramyxoviridae are responsible for severe humans and animal diseases, including measles, rinderpest (RP) and peste des petits ruminants (PPR). In spite of the existence of efficient vaccines against these diseases, specific treatments to be applied when the infection is already present are desirable. Inhibition of morbillivirus replication can be achieved by RNA interference (RNAi), a mechanism of post-transcriptional gene silencing triggered by small double-stranded RNA (siRNA). The CIRAD previously identified three siRNAs that target conserved regions of the essential gene encoding the viral nucleoprotein and are able to prevent in vitro at least 80% of the replication of measles, RP and PPR viruses . However, a major problem in RNAi is the important risk of emergence of escape mutants. In this study, we investigated the ability of PPR virus to escape the inhibition conferred by single or multiple siRNAs after several consecutive transfections in vitro. Except with the combination of the three different siRNAs, the virus systematically escaped RNAi after 3 to 20 consecutive passages. The mutations were characterized by either single or multiple punctual nucleotide mutations (synonymous or not) or a deletion of a stretch of 6 nucleotides into the siRNA target. These results demonstrate that the genomic plasticity of morbilliviruses, illustrated maily by this significant and no-deleterious deletion in an essential viral gene, should be considered as an obstacle to the use of RNAi in antiviral therapy. However, the combined use of three siRNAs can be proposed to prevent treatment failure with siRNAs.

O agente etiológico da Febre Maculosa das Montanhas Rochosas (RMSF), conhecida no Brasil como Febre Maculosa Brasileira, é a bactéria Rickettsia rickettsii. Essa bactéria é transmitida ao homem pela picada de diferentes espécies de carrapatos ixodídeos. No Brasil, os vetores são Amblyomma cajennense e A. aureolatum. As taxas de prevalência de R. rickettsii nas populações de carrapatos de áreas endêmicas para RMSF são baixas, em geral abaixo de 1%. Essa baixa prevalência parece estar associada a menores taxas reprodutivas e de sobrevivência de linhagens infectadas, sugerindo que R. rickettsii seja patogênica também para os seus vetores. Infecções experimentais demonstraram que 80-100% dos indivíduos de uma colônia de A. aureolatum mantida em laboratório são infectados por R. rickettsii, enquanto apenas 10-60% de A. cajennense adquirem a bactéria. Esses dados indicam que as respostas dessas duas espécies de carrapatos à infecção sejam diferentes, resultando em diferentes taxas de prevalência da bactéria. Dessa maneira, a caracterização molecular das interações entre carrapatos do gênero Amblyomma e a bactéria R. rickettsii é importante, podendo gerar informações não somente para o esclarecimento acerca dos mecanismos de patogenicidade de R. rickettsii para os carrapatos, mas também para um melhor entendimento dos mecanismos responsáveis pela aparente restringência de A. cajennense à infecção. Assim, os objetivos do presente estudo foram: (i) analisar os efeitos da infecção por R. rickettsii sobre o perfil de expressão gênica de carrapatos A. cajennense por hibridação subtrativa por supressão (SSH), (ii) validar os dados de SSH por reação em cadeia de polimerase quantitativa precedida por transcrição reversa (RT-qPCR) e (iii) caracterizar funcionalmente dois genes com expressão induzida pela infecção por RNA de interferência (RNAi). Após a análise bioinformática dos dados de SSH, 44 sequências únicas foram obtidas, das quais 36 representam genes com expressão induzida e 8 genes com expressão reprimida pela infecção. A indução dos genes codificadores da subunidade I da citocromo c oxidase (COX1), da subunidade IV da NADH desidrogenase, de uma proteína com domínio de inibidor de serina-proteases Kunitz-type (papilina-like), identificados por SSH, e de um peptídeo antimicrobiano (hebraeína), foi confirmada por RT-qPCR. O silenciamento gênico da hebraeína e da papilina-like não teve nenhum efeito na aquisição de R. rickettsii pelo vetor, indicando que, isoladamente, não são responsáveis pela proteção de A. cajennense contra a infecção. Os dados gerados pelo presente estudo abrem perspectivas para que outros genes sejam avaliados quanto ao seu papel na aquisição de R. rickettsii, os quais, no futuro, podem ser considerados como alvos para o desenvolvimento de vacinas. / The etiologic agent of the Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF), also known as Brazilian Spotted Fever in Brazil, is the bacterium Rickettsia rickettsii. This rickettsia is transmitted to humans by the bite of various tick species. In Brazil, Amblyomma cajennense and A. aureolatum are known as vectors. The prevalence rates of R. rickettsii infected ticks in RMSF endemic areas are low, oscillating around 1%. These low prevalence rates seems to be associated with lower reproductive and survival rates of infected ticks, suggesting that R. rickettsii is also pathogenic to its vectors. Experimental infections with R. rickettsii have demonstrated that 80 to 100% of A. aureolatum ticks from a laboratory colony acquire this bacterium, whereas only 10 to 60% of A. cajennense ticks become infected. These results indicate that the responses of these two tick species against infection are different, resulting in different prevalence rates of the bacterium. Therefore, the elucidation of the interactions between ticks of the genera Amblyomma and the bacterium R. rickettsii at a molecular level is important to provide information to better understand the mechanisms of pathogenicity of R. rickettsii against ticks as well as for the elucidation of the mechanisms responsible for the apparent refractoriness of A. cajennense against infection. Therefore, the objectives of the current study were: (i) analyze the effets of the infection with R. rickettsii on the gene expression of ticks A. cajennense by suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH), (ii) validate SSH data by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and (iii) functionally characterize two genes induced by infection using RNA interference (RNAi). After bioinformatics analysis of SSH data, 44 unique sequences were obtained, among which 36 represent genes with expression induced and 8 repressed genes by infection. The induction of genes encoding subunit I of cytochrome c oxidase (COX1), the NADH dehydrogenase subunit IV, a protein containing Kunitz-type inhibitor domain (papilin-like), identified by SSH, and an antimicrobial peptide (hebraein), was confirmed by RT-qPCR. The effects of knockdown of hebraein and papilin-like encoding genes had no effect on the acquisition of R. rickettsii by the vector. Data of the current study may be used to evaluate the role of other genes in acquisition of R. rickettsii, which, in the future, may be considered as target for vaccine development.

Dans ce travail nous avons élaboré une nouvelle méthode de l'analyse de réseau à définir des membres possibles des voies moléculaires qui sont important pour ce phénotype en utilisant la « hit-liste » des expériences « omics » qui travaille dans le réseau intégré (le réseau comprend des interactions protéine-protéine, de transcription, l’acide ribonucléique micro-l’acide ribonucléique messager et celles métaboliques). La méthode tire des sous-réseaux qui sont construit des voies de quatre types les plus courtes (qui ne se composent des interactions protéine-protéine, ayant au minimum une interaction de transcription, ayant au minimum une interaction l’acide ribonucléique micro-l’acide ribonucléique messager, ayant au minimum une interaction métabolique) entre des hit –gènes et des soi-disant « exécuteurs terminaux » - les composants biologiques qui participent à la réalisation du phénotype finale (s’ils sont connus) ou entre les hit-gènes (si « des exécuteurs terminaux » sont inconnus). La méthode calcule la valeur de la centralité de chaque point culminant et de chaque voie dans le sous-réseau comme la quantité des voies les plus courtes trouvées sur la route précédente et passant à travers le point culminant et la voie. L'importance statistique des valeurs de la centralité est estimée en comparaison avec des valeurs de la centralité dans les sous-réseaux construit des voies les plus courtes pour les hit-listes choisi occasionnellement. Il est supposé que les points culminant et les voies avec les valeurs de la centralité statistiquement signifiantes peuvent être examinés comme les membres possibles des voies moléculaires menant à ce phénotype. S’il y a des valeurs expérimentales et la P-valeur pour un grand nombre des points culminant dans le réseau, la méthode fait possible de calculer les valeurs expérimentales pour les voies (comme le moyen des valeurs expérimentales des points culminant sur la route) et les P-valeurs expérimentales (en utilisant la méthode de Fischer et des transpositions multiples).A l'aide de la méthode masterPATH on a analysé les données de la perte de fonction criblage de l’acide ribonucléique micro et l'analyse de transcription de la différenciation terminal musculaire et les données de la perte de fonction criblage du procès de la réparation de l'ADN. On peut trouver le code initial de la méthode si l’on suit le lien https://github.com/daggoo/masterPATH / In this work we developed a new exploratory network analysis method, that works on an integrated network (the network consists of protein-protein, transcriptional, miRNA-mRNA, metabolic interactions) and aims at uncovering potential members of molecular pathways important for a given phenotype using hit list dataset from “omics” experiments. The method extracts subnetwork built from the shortest paths of 4 different types (with only protein-protein interactions, with at least one transcription interaction, with at least one miRNA-mRNA interaction, with at least one metabolic interaction) between hit genes and so called “final implementers” – biological components that are involved in molecular events responsible for final phenotypical realization (if known) or between hit genes (if “final implementers” are not known). The method calculates centrality score for each node and each path in the subnetwork as a number of the shortest paths found in the previous step that pass through the node and the path. Then, the statistical significance of each centrality score is assessed by comparing it with centrality scores in subnetworks built from the shortest paths for randomly sampled hit lists. It is hypothesized that the nodes and the paths with statistically significant centrality score can be considered as putative members of molecular pathways leading to the studied phenotype. In case experimental scores and p-values are available for a large number of nodes in the network, the method can also calculate paths’ experiment-based scores (as an average of the experimental scores of the nodes in the path) and experiment-based p-values (by aggregating p-values of the nodes in the path using Fisher’s combined probability test and permutation approach). The method is illustrated by analyzing the results of miRNA loss-of-function screening and transcriptomic profiling of terminal muscle differentiation and of ‘druggable’ loss-of-function screening of the DNA repair process. The Java source code is available on GitHub page https://github.com/daggoo/masterPATH

Hedgehog (Hh) proteins control animal development and tissue homeostasis. They activate gene expression by regulating processing, stability, and activation of Gli/Cubitus interruptus (Ci) transcription factors. Hh proteins are secreted and spread through tissue, despite becoming covalently linked to sterol during processing. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed to release Hh proteins in distinct forms; in Drosophila, lipoproteins facilitate long-range Hh mobilization but also contain lipids that repress the pathway. Here, we show that mammalian lipoproteins have conserved roles in Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) release and pathway repression. We demonstrate that lipoprotein-associated forms of Hh and Shh specifically block lipoprotein-mediated pathway inhibition. We also identify a second conserved release form that is not sterol-modified and can be released independently of lipoproteins (Hh-N*/Shh-N*). Lipoprotein-associated Hh/Shh and Hh-N*/Shh-N* have complementary and synergistic functions. In Drosophila wing imaginal discs, lipoprotein-associated Hh increases the amount of full-length Ci, but is insufficient for target gene activation. However, small amounts of non-sterol-modified Hh synergize with lipoprotein-associated Hh to fully activate the pathway and allow target gene expression. The existence of Hh secretion forms with distinct signaling activities suggests a novel mechanism for generating a diversity of Hh responses.

Asymmetric positioning of the mitotic spindle in C. elegans embryos is mediated by force-generating complexes that are anchored at the plasma membrane and that pull on microtubules growing out from the spindle poles. Although asymmetric distribution of the force generators is thought to underlie asymmetric positioning of the spindle, the number and location of the force generators has not been well defined. In particular, it has not been possible to visualize individual force generating events at the cortex. We discovered that perturbation of the acto-myosin cortex leads to the formation of long membrane invaginations that are pulled from the plasma membrane toward the spindle poles. Several lines of evidence show that the invaginations, which also occur in unperturbed embryos though at lower frequency, are pulled by the same force generators responsible for spindle positioning. Thus, the invaginations serve as a tool to localize the sites of force generation at the cortex and allow us to estimate a lower limit on the number of cortical force generators within the cell.

For self-renewal, embryonic stem cells (ESCs) require the expression of specific transcription factors accompanied by a particular chromosome organization to maintain a balance between pluripotency and the capacity for rapid differentiation. However, how transcriptional regulation is linked to chromosome organization in ESCs is not well understood. Here we show that the cohesin component RAD21 exhibits a functional role in maintaining ESC identity through association with the pluripotency transcriptional network. ChIP-seq analyses of RAD21 reveal an ESC specific cohesin binding pattern that is characterized by CTCF independent co-localization of cohesin with pluripotency related transcription factors Oct4, Nanog, Sox2, Esrrb and Klf4. Upon ESC differentiation, most of these binding sites disappear and instead new CTCF independent RAD21 binding sites emerge, which are enriched for binding sites of transcription factors implicated in early differentiation. Furthermore, knock-down of RAD21 causes expression changes that are similar to expression changes after Nanog depletion, demonstrating the functional relevance of the RAD21 - pluripotency transcriptional network association. Finally, we show that Nanog physically interacts with the cohesin or cohesin interacting proteins STAG1 and WAPL further substantiating this association. Based on these findings we propose that a dynamic placement of cohesin by pluripotency transcription factors contributes to a chromosome organization supporting the ESC expression program.