A series of experiments were conducted to investigate how dietary and ruminal factors regulate urea-N recycling in ruminants. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, urea-N kinetics were measured using 4-d intra-jugular infusions of [15N15N]-urea. In Experiment 1, the objective was to determine how interactions between dietary ruminally-degradable protein (RDP) level and ruminally-fermentable carbohydrate (RFC) may alter urea-N transfer to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the utilization of this recycled urea-N in rapidly-growing lambs fed high N diets. The dietary factors were: 1) dry-rolled barley (DRB) vs. pelleted barley (PB) as the principal source of RFC; and 2) dietary levels of RDP of 60 vs. 70% (% of CP). Nitrogen intake, fecal and urinary N excretion increased as dietary RDP level increased; however, method of barley processing had no effect on N use. Dietary treatment had no effect on urea-N kinetics; however, endogenous production of urea-N (UER) exceeded N intake. For all diets, 0.669 to 0.742 of UER was recycled to the GIT; however, 0.636 to 0.756 of the GER was returned to the ornithine cycle. In Experiment 2, the objective was to delineate the effects of partial defaunation of the rumen on urea-N kinetics in lambs fed low or high N diets. Treatments were: 1) partial defaunation (PDFAUN) vs. faunation (FAUN); and 2) low (10%, LOW) vs. high (15%, HIGH) dietary CP. Linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil was fed as a partially-defaunating agent. Partial defaunation decreased ruminal NH3-N concentrations. The UER and urinary urea-N excretion (UUE) were lower, and the GER tended to be lower in PDFAUN as compared to FAUN lambs; however, as a proportion of UER, GER was higher and the proportion of recycled urea-N that was utilized for anabolism (i.e., UUA) tended to be higher in PDFAUN lambs. The UER, GER and UUE were higher in lambs fed diet HIGH; however, as a proportion of UER, GER and its anabolic use were higher in lambs fed diet LOW. In Experiment 3, the objective was to delineate how, at similar N intakes, interactions between ruminal partial defaunation and altering dietary RFC may alter urea-N kinetics and N metabolism in lambs. Treatments were: 1) PDFAUN vs. FAUN; and 2) DRB vs. PB. Urinary N excretion was lower and retained N was higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. The UER was similar across treatments; however, the GER, expressed as absolute amounts or as a proportion of UER, UUA, and microbial N supply were higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. As a proportion of UER, GER was higher, whereas UUE was lower in lambs fed PB compared to those fed DRB. In Experiment 4, the objective was to determine the effects of feeding oscillating dietary CP compared to static dietary CP concentration on N retention and in vitro urea flux across ruminal epithelia. Dietary treatments consisted of a medium CP diet (MEDIUM; 12.8% CP) or diets with oscillating CP content (OSC) fed in two different sequences i.e., 2 d of low CP (9.7% CP) followed by 2 d of high CP (16.1% CP; OSC-HIGH) or vice-versa (OSC-LOW). Ruminal epithelial tissues were collected and mounted in Ussing chambers under short-circuit conditions and the serosal-to-mucosal urea flux (Jsm-urea) was measured using 14C-urea. Although N intake was similar, retained N and microbial N supply were greater in lambs fed the OSC diets compared to those fed the MEDIUM diet. The total Jsm-urea was higher in lambs fed the OSC-LOW compared to those fed the OSC-HIGH diet. Across diets, the addition of phloretin (a known specific inhibitor of facilitative urea transporter-B; UT-B) reduced Jsm-urea; however, phloretin-insensitive Jsm-urea was the predominant route for transepithelial urea transfer. In summary, data presented in this thesis provide new insights that the improved N retention typically observed in defaunated ruminants and in ruminants fed oscillating dietary CP concentrations is partly mediated via increased urea-N recycling to the GIT and utilization of recycled urea-N for anabolic purposes.

A series of experiments were conducted to investigate how dietary and ruminal factors regulate urea-N recycling in ruminants. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, urea-N kinetics were measured using 4-d intra-jugular infusions of [15N15N]-urea. In Experiment 1, the objective was to determine how interactions between dietary ruminally-degradable protein (RDP) level and ruminally-fermentable carbohydrate (RFC) may alter urea-N transfer to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the utilization of this recycled urea-N in rapidly-growing lambs fed high N diets. The dietary factors were: 1) dry-rolled barley (DRB) vs. pelleted barley (PB) as the principal source of RFC; and 2) dietary levels of RDP of 60 vs. 70% (% of CP). Nitrogen intake, fecal and urinary N excretion increased as dietary RDP level increased; however, method of barley processing had no effect on N use. Dietary treatment had no effect on urea-N kinetics; however, endogenous production of urea-N (UER) exceeded N intake. For all diets, 0.669 to 0.742 of UER was recycled to the GIT; however, 0.636 to 0.756 of the GER was returned to the ornithine cycle. In Experiment 2, the objective was to delineate the effects of partial defaunation of the rumen on urea-N kinetics in lambs fed low or high N diets. Treatments were: 1) partial defaunation (PDFAUN) vs. faunation (FAUN); and 2) low (10%, LOW) vs. high (15%, HIGH) dietary CP. Linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil was fed as a partially-defaunating agent. Partial defaunation decreased ruminal NH3-N concentrations. The UER and urinary urea-N excretion (UUE) were lower, and the GER tended to be lower in PDFAUN as compared to FAUN lambs; however, as a proportion of UER, GER was higher and the proportion of recycled urea-N that was utilized for anabolism (i.e., UUA) tended to be higher in PDFAUN lambs. The UER, GER and UUE were higher in lambs fed diet HIGH; however, as a proportion of UER, GER and its anabolic use were higher in lambs fed diet LOW. In Experiment 3, the objective was to delineate how, at similar N intakes, interactions between ruminal partial defaunation and altering dietary RFC may alter urea-N kinetics and N metabolism in lambs. Treatments were: 1) PDFAUN vs. FAUN; and 2) DRB vs. PB. Urinary N excretion was lower and retained N was higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. The UER was similar across treatments; however, the GER, expressed as absolute amounts or as a proportion of UER, UUA, and microbial N supply were higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. As a proportion of UER, GER was higher, whereas UUE was lower in lambs fed PB compared to those fed DRB. In Experiment 4, the objective was to determine the effects of feeding oscillating dietary CP compared to static dietary CP concentration on N retention and in vitro urea flux across ruminal epithelia. Dietary treatments consisted of a medium CP diet (MEDIUM; 12.8% CP) or diets with oscillating CP content (OSC) fed in two different sequences i.e., 2 d of low CP (9.7% CP) followed by 2 d of high CP (16.1% CP; OSC-HIGH) or vice-versa (OSC-LOW). Ruminal epithelial tissues were collected and mounted in Ussing chambers under short-circuit conditions and the serosal-to-mucosal urea flux (Jsm-urea) was measured using 14C-urea. Although N intake was similar, retained N and microbial N supply were greater in lambs fed the OSC diets compared to those fed the MEDIUM diet. The total Jsm-urea was higher in lambs fed the OSC-LOW compared to those fed the OSC-HIGH diet. Across diets, the addition of phloretin (a known specific inhibitor of facilitative urea transporter-B; UT-B) reduced Jsm-urea; however, phloretin-insensitive Jsm-urea was the predominant route for transepithelial urea transfer. In summary, data presented in this thesis provide new insights that the improved N retention typically observed in defaunated ruminants and in ruminants fed oscillating dietary CP concentrations is partly mediated via increased urea-N recycling to the GIT and utilization of recycled urea-N for anabolic purposes.

L’amido è la maggiore fonte di energia per i ruminanti e la sua efficienza di utilizzazione nel tratto gastro-intestinale è importante per soddisfare i fabbisogni energetici dell’animale. La degradabilità dell’amido è misurata da diversi metodi (i.e., metodi in vivo, in situ, in vitro con inoculo ruminale e/o metodi enzimatici) e appare essere influenzata dal tipo di cereale, dai metodi di lavorazione e conservazione degli alimenti, dalla dimensione delle particelle, dal tipo di endosperma, etc.). La tesi è consistita di 4 esperimenti: Esperimento 1) la degradabilità dell’amido di diversi alimenti è stata valutata con un metodi condotto in situ ed il metodo in vitro proposto da Tilley&Terry: entrambi sono stati capaci di differenziare gli alimenti in base alla diversa degradabilità dell’amido. Esperimento 2) Un approccio enzimatico è stato studiato per determinare la quantità di amido degradato. Esperimento 3) Il metodo enzimatico ed il metodo Tilley&Terry sono stati comparati e sono risultati essere ben correlati, evidenziando la possibilità di utilizzare l’approccio enzimatico per studiare i fattori che influenzano la degradabilità dell’amido. Dato che pochi lavori scientifici hanno confrontato la degradabilità dell’amido di granelle e pastoni di mais, nell’Esperimento 4) sono stati raccolti campioni di mais conservati con diverse modalità (i.e., farina di mais, pastoni di granella e pastoni integrali di mais) per verificare quali le caratteristiche chimiche che influenzano la degradabilità dell’amido. I fattori che maggiormente condizionano la valutazione enzimatica della degradabilità dell’amido sono il contenuto in prolamine e l’umidità dei campioni. In conclusione, il metodo enzimatico può essere routinariamente utilizzato dai laboratori commerciali per la rapida valutazione della degradabilità dell’amido negli alimenti destinati all’uso animale. / Starch is the main energy source for ruminants and its efficient utilization in gastro-intestinal tract is important to meet animal energy requirements. The starch degradability is determined by several methods (i.e., in vivo, in situ, in vitro ruminal and/or enzymatic methods) and is affected by type of grain, processing and conservation methods, particle size, type of endosperm, etc.. Four experiments were conducted: Experiment 1) starch degradability of different feeds was evaluated with in-situ and in-vitro Tilley&Terry methods: both are able to differentiate starch degradability among feeds. Experiment 2) An in-vitro enzymatic approach was studied to determine the amount of starch degradation. Experiment 3) Enzymatic and Tilley-Terry methods were compared, resulting well correlated and highlighting the possible application of enzymatic method to investigate the factors affecting starch degradability. Because few works compared the starch degradability of dry-ground and high-moisture corns, in Experiment 4) a data set of different conserved corn samples (i.e., dry, high-moisture and high-moisture-ear corns) was produced and chemical factors affecting starch degradability were studied. The most important factors influencing the enzymatic starch degradability were prolamin and moisture. Concluding, the enzymatic method could be used by commercial laboratories as a routine method for rapid determination of feed starch degradability.

Submitted by Johnny Rodrigues (johnnyrodrigues@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-09-04T22:56:45Z No. of bitstreams: 1 AMÉLIA LIZZIANE LEITE DUARTE - TESE PPGMV 2012..pdf: 637832 bytes, checksum: 8a08b402027d942419996459bd5d8dfd (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-04T22:56:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 AMÉLIA LIZZIANE LEITE DUARTE - TESE PPGMV 2012..pdf: 637832 bytes, checksum: 8a08b402027d942419996459bd5d8dfd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Capes / Esta tese inclui três artigos sobre plantas tóxicas que causam ou são suspeitas de causarem morte súbita associada ao exercício em animais domésticos, intoxicação que se caracteriza por evolução superaguda, sem alterações cardíacas morfológicas significativas. O primeiro capítulo é uma revisão bibliográfica, detalhando recentes mudanças que ocorreram na identificação das diferentes espécies tóxicas de Amorimia (anteriormente referidas como Mascagnia) encontradas no Brasil e diferenciando-as quanto à epidemiologia e toxicidade. São descritos, também, os sinais clínicos, achados de necropsia e histológicos, diagnóstico e medidas de prevenção e/ou controle das intoxicações por Amorimia spp. No segundo capítulo é descrita, em caprinos, a indução de resistência à intoxicação por Amorimia septentrionalis, mediante administração repetida de doses não-tóxicas desta planta, e a transmissão da resistência de caprinos resistentes para caprinos susceptíveis através da transfaunação de líquido ruminal. Neste estudo, observou-se que os caprinos que recebiam doses não tóxicas e os que receberam a transfaunação foram mais resistentes que os que nunca ingeriram a planta previamente ou apenas coabitavam com os resistentes. O terceiro capítulo é uma comunicação científica que avaliou, experimentalmente, a toxicidade de Callaeum psilophyllum (sinônimo Mascagnia psilophylla) em coelhos e caprinos, assim como a possibilidade da ocorrência de intoxicação espontânea por esta planta em ruminantes. Foi comprovado que, em coelhos, C. psilophyllum causa um quadro clínico semelhante aos das plantas que causam morte súbita; no entanto, em caprinos, causa sinais digestivos, principalmente diarreia. Não há evidências de que C. psilophyllum cause intoxicações espontâneas em ruminantes. / This thesis includes three papers on toxic plants that cause or are suspected of causing sudden death associated with exercise in domestic animals, poisoning characterized by a per acute course without significant morphological heart changes. The first chapter is a literature review, detailing recent changes that have occurred in the identification of different species of toxic Amorimia (formerly referred as Mascagnia) found in Brazil. We also report the epidemiology, toxicity, clinical signs, necropsy and histologic findings, diagnosis, and prevention and control of the poisoning by Amorimia spp. The second chapter reports the induction of resistance to poisoning by Amorimia septentrionalis by the repeated administration of non toxic doses, and also by transfaunation of ruminal contents from resistant to susceptible goats. In this study, we observed that animals receiving non-toxic doses and transfaunation of ruminal content were more resistant than goats that never ingested the plant. The third chapter is a short communication that evaluated experimentally the toxicity of Callaeum psilophyllum (synonym Mascagnia psilophylla) in rabbits and goats, as well as the possibility of the occurrence of poisoning by this plant in ruminants. It was demonstrated that, in rabbits, this plant causes similar clinical signs than those caused by plants causing sudden death; however, in goats, C. psilophyllum causes digestive signs, mainly diarrhea. There is no evidence that C. psilophyllum causes spontaneous poisoning in ruminants.

Submitted by Johnny Rodrigues (johnnyrodrigues@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-09-05T23:15:15Z No. of bitstreams: 1 MARIA LUANA CRISTINY RODRIGUES SILVA - TESE PPGMV 2012..pdf: 1371315 bytes, checksum: 08a377eebdf25947c07fbd829c5e814e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-05T23:15:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MARIA LUANA CRISTINY RODRIGUES SILVA - TESE PPGMV 2012..pdf: 1371315 bytes, checksum: 08a377eebdf25947c07fbd829c5e814e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Capes / O objetivo do presente trabalho foi determinar indicadores epidemiológicos para infecções virais em caprinos leiteiros no semiárido da Paraíba. Foram determinadas as prevalências de propriedades positivas (focos) e de animais soropositivos, bem como foram identificados fatores de risco associados às infecções por Herpesvírus caprino 1 (CpHV-1), Pestivírus, vírus da Língua Azul (LA) e lentivírus de pequenos ruminantes (LVPR). No total, foram amostradas de 1.034 a 1.092 fêmeas caprinas adultas procedentes de 110 propriedades leiteiras localizadas no Munícipio de Monteiro, microrregião do Cariri Ocidental, Estado da Paraíba, no período de novembro de 2009 a agosto de 2011. Para cada doença, foi realizado o diagnóstico sorológico com técnicas consolidadas internacionalmente. Para LVPR, foi procedida a detecção direta do agente por PCR em tempo real de sangue e leite. Uma propriedade foi considerada foco quando apresentou pelo menos um animal soropositivo. As prevalências de propriedades positivas foram de 89,1%, 6,36%, 59,1% e 44,6% para as infecções por CpHV-1, Pestivírus, vírus da LA e LVPR, respectivamente. As prevalências de animais soropositivos foram de 36,6%, 0,82%, 12,1% e 8,1%, respectivamente. A utilização da monta natural foi identificada como fator de risco associado à prevalência de rebanhos positivos para CpHV-1; para Pestivírus, não realizar vermifugação e realizar corte e desinfecção de umbigo foram identificados como fatores de risco; produção diária de leite superior a 19 litros foi identificada como fator de risco para LA; para LVPR, realizar corte e desinfecção de umbigo e existência de cercas de boa qualidade foram identificados como fatores de risco, e a PCR em tempo real da série branca do sangue apresentou boa performance, com sensibilidade de 100%, especificidade de 92,86%, concordância de 93,75% e indicador Kappa de 0,765. Com base na análise de fatores de risco, foi possível a recomendação de medidas e intervenções com vistas à minimização de perdas econômicas. / The aim of this survey was to determine epidemiological indicators to viral infections in dairy goats in the semiarid region of the Paraíba State. It was determined the prevalence of positive flocks (foci) and seropositive animals, as well as risk factors associated with the infections due to caprine herpersvirus 1 (CpHV-1), Pestivirus, bluetobgue virus (BTV) and small ruminants lentivirus (SRLV) were identified. From 1,034 to 1,092 dairy goats were sampled in 110 dairy flocks in the county of Monteiro, Cariri Ocidental microregion, Paraíba State, during November 2009 to August 2011. To each disease the serological diagnosis was carried-out using internationally consolidated techniques. For SRLV the direct detection of the agent was performed by real-time PCR in blood and milk. A flock was considered positive when presented at least one seropositive animal. Prevalences of positive flocks were 89.1%, 6.36%, 59.1% and 44.6% for the infections by CpHV-1, Pestivirus, BTV and SRLV, respectively. Prevalences of seropositive animals were 36.6%, 0.82%, 12.1% and 8.1%, respectively. The use of natural mating was identified as a risk factor associated with CpHV-1 flock-level prevalence; for Pestivirus, not perform vermifugation and to perform umbilical cord cutting and disinfection were identified as risk factors; daily milk production upper to 19 liters was identified as risk factor to LA; for SRLV, umbilical cord cutting and disinfection and existence of good quality fences were identified as risk factors, and real-time PCR using white blood cells had a good performance, with sensitivity of 100%, specificity of 92.86%, concordance of 93.75% and Kappa index of 0.765. Based on the risk factor analysis it was possible to recommend measures and interventions aiming the minimization of economic losses.

Submitted by Johnny Rodrigues (johnnyrodrigues@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-09-06T17:16:46Z No. of bitstreams: 1 SEVERINO SILVANO DOS SANTOS HIGINO - TESE PPGMV 2012..pdf: 912889 bytes, checksum: ecd83ccda461de3cefab79cf44f95ab7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-06T17:16:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 SEVERINO SILVANO DOS SANTOS HIGINO - TESE PPGMV 2012..pdf: 912889 bytes, checksum: ecd83ccda461de3cefab79cf44f95ab7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / CNPq / Capes / A leptospirose em pequenos ruminantes é uma doença que pode causar perdas econômicas devido a ocorrência de abortamentos, natimortalidade e diminuição da produção de leite. Este trabalho teve como objetivos determinar a prevalência de propriedades de caprinos leiteiros positivas e de animais soropositivos para leptospirose no semiárido paraibano, bem como identificar fatores de risco associados à prevalência de propriedades positivas. A amostragem foi delineada para a determinação da prevalência de propriedades positivas (focos) e de animais soropositivos para a infecção por Leptospira spp. No total, foram colhidas amostras de sangue de 975 animais procedentes de 110 propriedades leiteiras localizadas no Munícipio de Monteiro, microrregião do Cariri Ocidental, Estado da Paraíba. Para o diagnóstico da infecção por Leptospira spp., foi utilizado o teste de soroaglutinação microscópica (SAM), utilizando como antígenos 24 sorovares. Uma propriedade foi considerada foco quando apresentou pelo menos um animal soropositivo. As prevalências de propriedades positivas e de animais soropositivos foram de 43,6% (IC 95% = 34,2% - 53,4%) e de 8,7% (IC 95% = 5,7% - 12,9%), respectivamente. Nos animais, os sorovares mais frequentes foram Autumnalis (1,74%; IC 95% = 0,97% – 3,09%), Sentot (1,71%; IC 95% = 0,82% – 3,52%) e Whitcomb (1,39%; IC 95% = 0,65% – 2,93%), e nas propriedades, os sorovares Autumnalis (10,9%; IC 95% = 5,8% – 18,3%), Whitcomb (8,2%; IC 95% = 3,8% – 15,0%) e Sentot e Patoc (7,3%; IC 95% = 3,2% – 13,8%) foram os mais frequentes. Presença de roedores (OR = 2,78, P = 0,015) foi identificada como fator de risco. Também houve associação entre o histórico de infertilidade (OR = 14,74, P = 0,015) e a prevalência de rebanhos positivos. Sugere-se que a infecção está distribuída em caprinos da região, e um programa de controle de roedores deve ser incluído nas práticas de manejo dos rebanhos com o intuito de reduzir a transmissão do agente e, consequentemente, reduzir a prevalência de rebanhos positivos e ocorrência de problemas reprodutivos, tais como infertilidade. / Leptospirosis in small ruminants is a disease that can causes economic losses due to occurrence of abortions, stillbirths and decreased milk production. This work aimed to determine the prevalence of positive dairy goat herds and seropositive animals for leptospirosis in semiarid region of Paraíba State. Sampling was designed to determine the prevalence of positive herds (foci) and seropositive animals for leptospirosis. A total of 975 serum samples were collected from goats from 110 dairy herds in the Monteiro, Cariri Ocidental microregion of the Paraiba State. For the serological diagnosis of leptospirosis the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) was carried out usind 24 Leptospiraspp. serovars as antigens. A herd was considered positive when presented at least one seropositive animal. The prevalence of positive herds and seropositive animals were 43.6% (95% CI = 34.2% - 53.4%) and 8.7% (95% CI = 58.7% - 12.9%), respectively. The most frequent serovars in animals were Autumnalis (1.74%; 95% CI = 0.97% – 3.09%), Sentot (1.71%; 95% CI = 0.82% - 3.52%) and Whitcomb (1.39%; 95% CI = 0.65% – 2.93%), and by herd, serovars Autumnalis (10.9%; 95% CI = 5.8% – 18.3%), Whitcomb (8.2%; 95% CI = 3.8% – 15.0%) and Sentot and Patoc (7.3%; 95% CI = 3.2% – 13.8%) were the most frequent. Presence of rodents (OR = 2.78; P = 0.015) was identified as a risk factor. There was also association between history of infertility (OR = 14.74; P = 0.015) and prevalence of positive flocks. It is suggested that leptospirosis is spread in goats in the region, and that a program of rodent control should be included in the flock management practices aiming to reduce transmission of the agent and then to reduce prevalence of positive flocks and occurrence of reproductive disorders such as impaired fertility.

Woody plant encroachment is one of the major problems worldwide because it affects negatively the herbaceous layer, which provide forage for livestock production. However, the role of ruminants particularly browsers in the dispersal of woody plant seeds still remains a concern for farmers interested in grass production. Seedpods of various woody plant species constitute a crucial part of the diet of herbivores during the dry season because of their high nutritional quality compared to herbaceous material. The interaction of associated diet quality, seed characteristics and animal species among other factors play a pivotal part in the success of livestock faecal seeds dispersion. Furthermore, dispersed seeds that successfully grow into mature woody plants become an important source of protein for herbivores. The use of woody plants as a source forage is known to be limited by plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) such as condensed tannins. The objectives of this study were to determine 1) the effects of condensed tannins and crude protein of Vachellia tortilis and Dichrostachys cinerea pods in seed recovery and germination fed to goats, and 2) the effects of diet mixing on the feed intake of plant species by goats. In the first experiment, a total of 12 female indigenous goats and 12 female Pedi sheep were utilised in this study, with the average body weights of 29.50 kg ± 1.60 (S.E) and 28.70 kg ± 1.60, respectively. Twelve goats were grouped into two groups of six goats per group, one group was fed D. cinerea pods and the other group was fed V. tortilis pods. The group of 12 sheep were divided similarly, the one group was fed D. cinerea pods and the other group was fed V. tortilis pods. Each animal was given V. tortilis and D. cinerea pods at 2.50% of their body weight. All animals were allowed to consume D. cinerea or V. tortilis pods within 24 h, after which the remaining pods were collected and weighed. Faecal collection commenced immediately after the 24 h pods feeding and was carried on until no seeds were discovered in faeces. All faeces extracted from sheep and goats were collected daily in the morning from the faecal bags. In the second experiment, a total of 24 indigenous goats with average body weight of 26.6 kg ± 0.51 were utilised. Goats were arbitrarily selected and grouped into four groups of six goats per group (goats were placed individually in 2 m2 pens). Each group was fed one of the following diets: diet one - Searsia lancea, diet two - S. pyroides, diet three - Euclea crispa and diet four - was a combination of the three plant species (Searsia lancea, S. pyroides and Euclea crispa). Searsia lancea, S. pyroides and E. crispa branches were collected every morning prior to feeding, and were weighed before offering the animals. Refusals were gathered and weighed, and intake was calculated as distinction between weight in and refusals. Plant species foliage were analysed for crude protein, condensed tannin, acid detergent lignin, acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre. During the first experiment, the cumulative percentage seed recovery of V. tortilis from goats (46.00 % ± 1.90) and sheep (52.00 % ± 2.93) was significantly higher than D. cinerea from goats (13 % ± 1.47) and sheep (24.00 % ± 1.16). Germination percentage of D. cinerea seeds that passed through the gastro-intestinal tract of goats (33.12 % ± 2.94) and sheep (36.00 % ± 2.68) was significantly higher than V. tortilis seeds that passed through the gastro-intestinal tract of goats (28.98 % ± 2.68) and sheep (23.04 % ± 2.81). Average D. cinerea (34.56 % ± 1.99) and V. tortilis (26.02 %± 2.10) seeds that went through the gastro-intestinal of goats and sheep had a significantly higher germination rate than the control (i.e. no passage through the gut; D. cinerea = 2.31 % ± 1.55, V. tortilis = 5.07 % ± 2.68). The high mean cumulative percentage seed recovery of V. tortilis (18.80 %) may be attributed to the relatively higher crude protein than D. cinerea (12.20 %). This may encourage animal seed dispersal and germination of woody plant species with relatively high crude protein content. In the second experiment, Searsia lancea contained 8.50 % CP, 21.46 % acid detergent fibre (ADF), 12.50 % ADL and 39.37 % NDF. Searsia pyroides had 9.03 % CP, 27.07 % ADF, 10.89 % ADL and 40.30 % NDF. Euclea crispa had 6.19 % CP, 26.20 % ADF, 16.63 % ADL and 30.02 % NDF. Mixed diet (combination of the three plant species) had 8.96 % CP, 23.72 % ADF, 11.13 % ADL and 38.28 % NDF. Searsia lancea had 2.70 % of CTs while S. pyroides had 5.20 % CT, E. crispa had 6.44 % CT and mixed diet had 7.20 % CT. The mean dry matter intake varied significantly among dietary groups (P < 0.001). Similarly, goats offered a mixed diet consumed more CTs (P < 0.01) than those offered individual forage species. The high mean cumulative percentage seed recovery of V. tortilis may be attributed to the higher crude protein of V. tortilis (18.80 %) than D. cinerea (12.20 %). Higher passage rate may encourage animal seed dispersal and germination of plant species. The results from experiment two support the postulation that animals foraging in mixed diet systems consume more PSMs and achieve higher dry matter intake than animals confined to monocultures or single species feeding systems. Given that woody plant encroachment is already reducing farm-grazing capacities in African savannas and this problem is predicted to double by 2050, strategies that improve herbivore ability to consume woody plants will increase forage availability and inform bush control programmes and policies. Moreover, the concomitant increase in CTs by goats exposed to diets with diverse species also has positive implications for animal / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Na tentativa de reproduzir os benefícios ruminais dos ionóforos, pesquisadores exploram as propriedades antimicrobianas dos compostos secundários dos vegetais. Técnicas in vitro de produção de gás são amplamente utilizadas nas etapas iniciais de pesquisa. Óleos essenciais são compostos hidrofóbicos, sendo comum sua diluição com etanol em experimentos in vitro. Etanol é metabolizado no ambiente ruminal, havendo principalmente produção de acetato. No primeiro experimento, o objetivo foi avaliar o efeito de 10, 100 e 1000 µL de etanol em 75 mL de fluido ruminal tamponado, correspondendo a 0,13; 1,3 e 13,3 µL/mL, respectivamente. As inclusões de 100 e 1000 µL de etanol alteraram a fermentação ruminal in vitro. A dose de 10 µL não afetou a fermentação, exceto pela tendência (P < 0,10) de aumento na produção de gás ou na concentração de valerato ao se incubar feno ou dieta de alto concentrado, respectivamente. Sugere-se a utilização da menor dose possível de etanol (0,13 µL/mL). O segundo experimento trata do uso de brancos (frascos sem substrato, contendo somente inóculo ruminal e meio de incubação) em experimentos in vitro para se estimar as produções líquidas de gás e metano (CH4), assim como a degradação líquida da matéria orgânica incubada. Foi demonstrado que aditivos ruminais (monensina, carvarol, eugenol) afetaram a fermentação de frascos contendo substrato assim como dos brancos. Dessa forma, brancos específicos (brancos contendo aditivo) são necessários ao se avaliar aditivos ruminais sob condições in vitro. No terceiro experimento, incubações in vitro foram conduzidas para triar os efeitos de óleos essenciais sobre a fermentação ruminal. Foram selecionados os óleos essenciais de erva-baleeira (Cordia verbenacea), aroeira-vermelha (Schinus terebinthifolius; óleo extraído das folhas ou frutos), macela (Achyrocline satureoides), guaco (Mikania glomerata), carqueja (Baccharis cylindrica), arnica (Lychnophora pinaster), capim cidreira (Cymbopogon citratus), capim limão (Cymbopogon flexuosus) e citronela (Cymbopogon winterianum). Foram também incluídos os óleos resinóides de copaíba mari-mari (Copaifera reticulata), copaíba angelim (Copaifera multijuga), copaíba zoró (Copaifera langsdorfii) e copaíba vermelha (Copaifera langsdorfii). Os óleos de ervabaleeira, macela e as quatro óleoresinas de copaíba pouco alteraram a fermentação ruminal. Os outros óleos apresentaram claro efeito antimicrobiano, evidenciado pela queda na degradação de substrato. Os resultados mais promissores foram observados ao se incubar dieta de alto concentrado com inóculo adaptado a esta dieta. Os óleos essenciais que apresentaram os melhores resultados foram aroeira vermelha (folhas e frutos) e arnica. Sob a condição de alto concentrado, esses óleos aumentaram a concentração de propionato, reduziram a relação acetato:propionato e/ou diminuíram a produção de CH4. Os óleos essenciais de aroeira vermelha (extraídos das folhas e dos frutos) e arnica foram selecionados para subsequente avaliação in vivo. / In an attempt to reproduce the benefits of ionophores on rumen fermentation, researchers have been exploiting the antimicrobial properties of plant secondary metabolites. In vitro gas production techniques are widely used during the screening phase. Essential oils are hydrophobic compounds, being usual its dilution in ethanol for in vitro experiments. In the rumen environment, ethanol is metabolized mostly to acetate. In the first experiment, the objective was to evaluate the effects of 10, 100 and 1000 µL of ethanol in 75 mL of buffered rumen fluid, corresponding to 0.13, 1.3, and 13.3 µL/mL, respectively. Ethanol inclusions of 100 and 1000 µL affected in vitro rumen fermentation. The inclusion of 10 µL of ethanol had no effects on fermentation, except for the tendency (P < 0.10) of gas production increase or valerate increase when incubating hay or a high-concentrate diet, respectively. It is suggested that ethanol should be included at the lowest dose as possible, which corresponded to 10 µL (0.13 µL/mL) in our conditions. The second experiment dealt with the use of blanks (flasks without substrate, containing only inoculum and incubation medium) in in vitro experiments to estimate net production of gas and methane (CH4), as well as net degradation of organic matter incubated. It was demonstrated that rumen additives (monensin, carvacrol, eugenol) affected fermentation of flasks containing substrate and blanks. Thus, specific blanks (blanks containing additive) are necessary when rumen additives are evaluated in vitro. In the third experiment, in vitro incubations were conducted to screen the effects of essential oils on rumen fermentation. The selected essential oils were: cordia (Cordia verbenacea), Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius; extracted from leaves or fruits), macela (Achyrocline satureoides), guaco (Mikania glomerata), carqueja (Baccharis cylindrica), arnica (Lychnophora pinaster), West Indian lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), East Indian lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), and citronella (Cymbopogon winterianum). Oleoresins from copaiba mari-mari (Copaifera reticulata), copaiba angelim (Copaifera multijuga), copaiba zoro (Copaifera langsdorfii), and copaiba vermelha (Copaifera langsdorfii) were also included. The essential oils from cordia, macela and all copaiba oleoresins had little effect on in vitro rumen fermentation. The remaining essential oils showed a clear antimicrobial effect, mainly on truly degraded organic matter. The most promising results were obtained when using high-concentrate diet and inoculum from animals fed this same diet. The best results were observed for Brazilian peppertree (leaves and fruits) and arnica essential oils. In the condition of high-concentrate diet, these oils increased propionate concentration, had lower acetate to propionate ratio, and/or reduced CH4 production. The essential oils from Brazilian peppertree (leaves and fruits) and arnica were selected for further in vivo evaluation.

Die Blauzungenkrankheit (Bluetongue, BT) ist eine weltweit verbreitete Infektionskrankheit der Wiederkäuer. Sie wird von einem Orbivirus, dem Bluetongue virus (BTV) ausgelöst, welches durch belebte Vektoren übertragen wird. Nach ursprünglich limitierter Verbreitung zwischen dem 35. südlichen und dem 40. nördlichen Breitengrad, hat sich das BT-Virus ausgehend vom Mittelmeerraum, auch in Teilen Südeuropas manifestiert. Im Spätsommer 2006 wurde BTV erstmals auch in Zentraleuropa nachgewiesen (Belgien, Niederlande und Deutschland) und breitete sich in den folgenden Jahren in weitere angrenzende europäische Länder aus. Der nachgewiesene Serotyp 8 (BTV-8) war bis dahin nur auf Gebiete südlich der Sahara, sowie Mittel- und Südamerika beschränkt. Die Bedeutung von Wildwiederkäuern für die Epidemiologie der Blauzungenkrankheit in Deutschland und in Mitteleuropa war bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt unbekannt. Sind die einheimischen Wildwiederkäuer (Rothirsch (Cervus elaphus), Damhirsch (Dama dama), Europäischer Mufflon (Ovis aries musimon) und Reh (Capreolus capreolus)) für das BTV empfänglich, so könnten sie eine Rolle als Erregerreservoir spielen und müssen somit auch in einer wirksamen Bekämpfungsstrategie berücksichtigt werden. Von April 2008 bis März 2011 wurde ein Monitoring zum BTV-Nachweis in Thüringen durchgeführt. Es sollte untersucht werden, ob die heimischen Wildwiederkäuerarten während des BTV-8-Seuchenzuges eine Rolle in der Epidemiologie der BT gespielt haben. Im Untersuchungszeitraum wurden 2535 Blut- und 3922 Muskelfleischproben von 4204 gehaltenen und erlegten Wildwiederkäuern (Rot-, Dam-, Muffel-, Reh- und Sikawild) auf BTV untersucht. Für Rot , Dam und Muffelwild lag der Anteil der untersuchten Proben an der Jagdstrecke im Jagdjahr 2008/09 mit 3,7 %, 4,1 % und 24,3 % jeweils am höchsten und nahm in den folgenden Jagdjahren auf 0,4 %, 0,3 % und 5,3 % ab. Beim Rehwild lag der Anteil in allen Jagdjahren zwischen 0,8 % und 1,7 %. Die Seroprävalenzen waren in den Jagdjahren 2008/09 bis 2010/11 rückläufig und lagen beim Muffelwild (n=354) zwischen 4,1 % und 1,3 %, beim Damwild (n=1721) zwischen 0,7 % und 0,0 % und beim Rotwild (n=283) zwischen 3,2 % und 0,0 %. Das bestätigt die Empfänglichkeit und Exposition dieser Spezies für BTV 8 in Thüringen. Bei dem untersuchten Rehwild wurden im gesamten Betrachtungszeitraum keine Antikörper gegen BTV im Blut (n=132) gefunden. In keiner der untersuchten 2535 Blutproben wurde BT-Virusgenom mittels RT-qPCR nachgewiesen. Die rückläufigen Seroprävalenzen bei Rot-, Dam- und Muffelwild und der fehlende Virusgenomnachweis deuten darauf hin, dass es keine Neuinfektionen und keine Persistenz des BTV-8 in der Wildwiederkäuerpopulation gab. Es ist anzunehmen, dass es im Untersuchungszeitraum in Thüringen zu keiner Zirkulation des BTV-8 in der Wildwiederkäuerpopulation, vergleichbar zu dem aus Spanien berichteten „Wildzyklus“, gekommen ist. Rehwild scheint weit weniger empfänglich für eine BTV-8 Infektion zu sein als andere Wildwiederkäuerarten, weshalb die Bedeutung bei der Verbreitung des BTV-8 vernachlässigbar ist. Zur frühestmöglichen Erkennung eines erneuten Auftretens von BTV Infektionen in Deutschland oder Mitteleuropa, zur Ausbruchsverfolgung, zur Abschätzung des Infektionsdruckes im Wildwiederkäuerbestand und zur Einschätzung, ob sich ein eigener Wildwiederkäuer Zyklus etabliert hat, ist neben dem Monitoring im Nutztierbereich auch eine Untersuchung von Wildtieren (Rot-, Dam- und Muffelwild) zu empfehlen. Hierbei sollten ganz gezielt insbesondere Tiere aus Gehegen einbezogen werden. Im Rahmen dieser Studie erwies sich EDTA Blut als geeignete Probenmatrix, welche den Antikörper- und Virusgenomnachweis von BTV in Wildwiederkäuern zulässt und leicht im Rahmen der Schlachttier- und Fleischuntersuchung gewonnen werden kann. / Bluetongue disease (Bluetongue, BT) is a globally widespread infectious disease of ruminants. The causative agent is the bluetongue virus (BTV), an Orbivirus that is transmitted by living vectors. Its distribution was originally limited to regions between the 35th southern and the 40th northern latitude, however the BT virus spread from the Mediterranean and manifested in southern parts of Europe. In late summer of 2006, BTV was detected in Central Europe (Belgium, Netherlands and Germany) for the first time and spread to other European countries in the following years. Before, the detected serotype 8 (BTV 8) was limited to areas south of the Sahara, as well as Central and South America. The importance of wild ruminants in the epidemiology of BT in Germany and Central Europe was unknown up to this point. If native wild ruminants (red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)) are susceptible to BTV, they could play a role as a virus reservoir and must be considered in an effective control strategy. From April 2008 to March 2011, a monitoring for the detection of BTV was carried out in Thuringia. The role of indigenous wild ruminants in the epidemiology of BT during the BTV-8 epidemic was to be investigated. In the course of the study period 2535 blood and 3922 muscle samples from 4204 fenced and free ranging wild ruminants (red deer, fallow deer, mouflon, roe deer and sika) were examined for BTV. For red deer, fallow deer and mouflon, the proportion of the tested samples on the hunting bag in the season 2008/09 was 3.7 %, 4.1 % and 24.3 % and decreased in the following hunting seasons to 0.4 %, 0.3 % and 5.3 %, respectively. In the case of roe deer, the proportion was between 0.8 % and 1.7 % in all hunting seasons. From the hunting seasons 2008/09 to 2010/11, the detected seroprevalences in mouflons (n=354) decreased from 4.1 % to 1.3 %, in fallow deer (n=1721) from 0.7 % to 0.0 % and in red deer (n=283) from 3.2 % to 0.0 %. These findings show the susceptibility and the exposure of these species to BTV in Thuringia. No antibodies against BTV could be detected in blood samples of roe deer (n=132) over the entire period of observation. BT virus genome was not detected in any of the 2535 investigated blood samples by RT-qPCR. The declining seroprevalences in red deer, fallow deer and mouflon and the absence of viral genome indicate that there were no new infections and no persistence of BTV-8 in the wild ruminant population. It can be assumed that there was no circulation of BTV-8 in the wild ruminant population in Thuringia during the study period, which would have been comparable to the 'wild cycle' reported from Spain. Roe deer appears to be far less susceptible to BTV-8 infection than other wild ruminants, therefore its importance for the spread of BTV-8 is negligible. To detect the reoccurrence of BTV infections in Germany or Central Europe as soon as possible, for outbreak control, to estimate the risk of infection in the wild ruminant population and to assess if a wild ruminant cycle has been established, the investigation of wild ruminant species (red deer, fallow deer and mouflon), especially the sampling of farmed wild ruminants, is recommended in addition to monitoring programs in the livestock sector. The Data of this study shows that EDTA blood is a suitable sample matrix for both, antibody and genome detection of BTV in wild ruminants, which can be easily collected during the ante and post mortem inspection.

No description available.