The overall objective of the dissertation was to improve the spatial and temporal representation and retrieval accuracy of evapotranspiration (ET) using satellite imagery. Specifically, (1) aiming at improving the spatial representation of daily net radiation (Rn,24) under rugged terrains, a new algorithm, which accounts for terrain effects on available shortwave radiation throughout a day and utilizes four observations of Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-based land surface temperature retrievals to simulate daily net longwave radiation, was developed. The algorithm appears to be capable of capturing heterogeneity in Rn,24 at watershed scales. (2) Most satellite-based ET models are constrained to work under cloud-free conditions. To address this deficiency, an approach of integrating a satellite-based model with a large-scale feedback model was proposed to generate ET time series for all days. Results show that the ET time series estimates can exhibit complementary features between the potential ET and the actual ET at watershed scales. (3) For improving the operability of Two-source Energy Balance (TSEB) which requires computing resistance networks and tuning the Priestley-Taylor parameter involved, a new Two-source Trapezoid Model for ET (TTME) based on deriving theoretical boundaries of evaporative fraction (EF) and the concept of soil surface moisture availability isopleths was developed. It was applied to the Soil Moisture and Atmosphere Coupling Experiment (SMACEX) site in central Iowa, U.S., on three Landsat TM/ETM imagery acquisition dates in 2002. Results show the EF and latent heat flux (LE) estimates with a mean absolute percentage difference (MAPD) of 6.7 percent and 8.7 percent, respectively, relative to eddy covariance tower-based measurements after forcing closure by the Bowen ratio technique. (4) The domain and resolution dependencies of the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) and the triangle model were systematically investigated. Derivation of theoretical boundaries of EF for the two models could effectively constrain errors/uncertainties arising from these dependencies. (5) A Modified SEBAL (M-SEBAL) was consequently proposed, in which subjectivity involved in the selection of extreme pixels by the operator is eliminated. The performance of M-SEBAL at the SMACEX site is reasonably well, showing EF and LE estimates with an MAPD of 6.3 percent and 8.9 percent, respectively.

A engenharia geotécnica brasileira é fortemente dependente dos resultados do ensaio SPT, sendo de fundamental importância aprimorar os métodos de investigação e elaboração de projetos nesta área. Embora bastante utilizado, o ensaio tem sido objeto freqüente de críticas, abrangendo tanto aspectos relacionados à dispersão de resultados, quanto à dependência do operador e diversidade de equipamentos e procedimentos. Devido a estas limitações, estudos de medição de energia têm sido desenvolvidos visando a padronização do ensaio, sendo inúmeras as contribuições nesta área. Para validar abordagens baseadas em conceitos de energia e dinâmica foram projetados, construídos e testados equipamentos de penetração dentro dos princípios de escala e similaridade com o objetivo de avaliar as semelhanças geométricas envolvidas no processo de cravação dinâmico. Os equipamentos foram projetados de acordo com uma análise dimensional, que objetiva estabelecer condições de semelhança física entre os ensaios considerando-se relações entre as áreas transversais dos amostradores correspondentes a 0,5, 1,5 e 2,0 vezes a área do amostrador padrão. A engenharia geotécnica brasileira é fortemente dependente dos resultados do ensaio SPT, sendo de fundamental importância aprimorar os métodos de investigação e elaboração de projetos nesta área. Embora bastante utilizado, o ensaio tem sido objeto freqüente de críticas, abrangendo tanto aspectos relacionados à dispersão de resultados, quanto à dependência do operador e diversidade de equipamentos e procedimentos. Devido a estas limitações, estudos de medição de energia têm sido desenvolvidos visando a padronização do ensaio, sendo inúmeras as contribuições nesta área. Para validar abordagens baseadas em conceitos de energia e dinâmica foram projetados, construídos e testados equipamentos de penetração dentro dos princípios de escala e similaridade com o objetivo de avaliar as semelhanças geométricas envolvidas no processo de cravação dinâmico. Os equipamentos foram projetados de acordo com uma análise dimensional, que objetiva estabelecer condições de semelhança física entre os ensaios considerando-se relações entre as áreas transversais dos amostradores correspondentes a 0,5, 1,5 e 2,0 vezes a área do amostrador padrão. / The Brazilian geotechnical practice is heavily dependent on SPT tests and for this reason it is fundamental the improvements of interpretation method throughout systematic research in this area. Although widely used, the test has been the object of frequent criticism, due to aspects related to scatter in test data, dependence of the operator and diversity of equipment and procedures. Because of these limitations, studies of measured energy have been developed to standardize the test are of ultimate importance and so are the methods of interpretation based on energy. To validate approaches based on the concepts of energy and dynamic, an equipment was constructed and tested following the principles of scale and similarity in an attempt of evaluating the geometrical similarities involved in the dynamic driving process. The equipment has been designed according to a dimensional analysis, which aims to establish conditions of physical similarity between the tests considered to be 0.5, 1.5 and 2.0 times the area of the standard sampler. The use of a numerical program developed by Lobo et al (2007) allowed numerical simulations to be carried out in order to predict the sampler penetration ρ, as well as the energy and dynamic force produced during penetration. Through experimental analysis performed, it was possible to test the different geometries, using open and closed samplers, and two different lifting mechanisms for lifting the hammer, using steel wire and sisal rope. Despite the scatter, the various equipments and procedures produce similar when the principles of scale and similarity have been considered. Scatter is attributed to soil heterogeneity, efficiency and other factors inherent to dynamic penetration testing. From the experimental program, it has been concluded that concepts of similarity applied to dynamic tests have great potential in the interpretation of SPT data, which opens up new alternatives to the empirical methods currently adopted in practice.

A engenharia geotécnica brasileira é fortemente dependente dos resultados do ensaio SPT, sendo de fundamental importância aprimorar os métodos de investigação e elaboração de projetos nesta área. Embora bastante utilizado, o ensaio tem sido objeto freqüente de críticas, abrangendo tanto aspectos relacionados à dispersão de resultados, quanto à dependência do operador e diversidade de equipamentos e procedimentos. Devido a estas limitações, estudos de medição de energia têm sido desenvolvidos visando a padronização do ensaio, sendo inúmeras as contribuições nesta área. Para validar abordagens baseadas em conceitos de energia e dinâmica foram projetados, construídos e testados equipamentos de penetração dentro dos princípios de escala e similaridade com o objetivo de avaliar as semelhanças geométricas envolvidas no processo de cravação dinâmico. Os equipamentos foram projetados de acordo com uma análise dimensional, que objetiva estabelecer condições de semelhança física entre os ensaios considerando-se relações entre as áreas transversais dos amostradores correspondentes a 0,5, 1,5 e 2,0 vezes a área do amostrador padrão. A engenharia geotécnica brasileira é fortemente dependente dos resultados do ensaio SPT, sendo de fundamental importância aprimorar os métodos de investigação e elaboração de projetos nesta área. Embora bastante utilizado, o ensaio tem sido objeto freqüente de críticas, abrangendo tanto aspectos relacionados à dispersão de resultados, quanto à dependência do operador e diversidade de equipamentos e procedimentos. Devido a estas limitações, estudos de medição de energia têm sido desenvolvidos visando a padronização do ensaio, sendo inúmeras as contribuições nesta área. Para validar abordagens baseadas em conceitos de energia e dinâmica foram projetados, construídos e testados equipamentos de penetração dentro dos princípios de escala e similaridade com o objetivo de avaliar as semelhanças geométricas envolvidas no processo de cravação dinâmico. Os equipamentos foram projetados de acordo com uma análise dimensional, que objetiva estabelecer condições de semelhança física entre os ensaios considerando-se relações entre as áreas transversais dos amostradores correspondentes a 0,5, 1,5 e 2,0 vezes a área do amostrador padrão. / The Brazilian geotechnical practice is heavily dependent on SPT tests and for this reason it is fundamental the improvements of interpretation method throughout systematic research in this area. Although widely used, the test has been the object of frequent criticism, due to aspects related to scatter in test data, dependence of the operator and diversity of equipment and procedures. Because of these limitations, studies of measured energy have been developed to standardize the test are of ultimate importance and so are the methods of interpretation based on energy. To validate approaches based on the concepts of energy and dynamic, an equipment was constructed and tested following the principles of scale and similarity in an attempt of evaluating the geometrical similarities involved in the dynamic driving process. The equipment has been designed according to a dimensional analysis, which aims to establish conditions of physical similarity between the tests considered to be 0.5, 1.5 and 2.0 times the area of the standard sampler. The use of a numerical program developed by Lobo et al (2007) allowed numerical simulations to be carried out in order to predict the sampler penetration ρ, as well as the energy and dynamic force produced during penetration. Through experimental analysis performed, it was possible to test the different geometries, using open and closed samplers, and two different lifting mechanisms for lifting the hammer, using steel wire and sisal rope. Despite the scatter, the various equipments and procedures produce similar when the principles of scale and similarity have been considered. Scatter is attributed to soil heterogeneity, efficiency and other factors inherent to dynamic penetration testing. From the experimental program, it has been concluded that concepts of similarity applied to dynamic tests have great potential in the interpretation of SPT data, which opens up new alternatives to the empirical methods currently adopted in practice.

abstract: Small metallic parts of size less than 1mm, with features measured in tens of microns, with tolerances as small as 0.1 micron are in demand for the research in many fields such as electronics, optics, and biomedical engineering. Because of various drawbacks with non-mechanical micromanufacturing processes, micromilling has shown itself to be an attractive alternative manufacturing method. Micromilling is a microscale manufacturing process that can be used to produce a wide range of small parts, including those that have complex 3-dimensional contours. Although the micromilling process is superficially similar to conventional-scale milling, the physical processes of micromilling are unique due to the scale effects. These scale effects occur due to unequal scaling of the parameters from the macroscale to the microscale milling. One key example of scale effects in micromilling process is a geometrical source of error known as chord error. The chord error limits the feedrate to a reduced value to produce the features within machining tolerances. In this research, it is hypothesized that the increase of chord error in micromilling can be alleviated by intelligent modification of the kinematic arrangement of the micromilling machine. Currently, all 3-axis micromilling machines are constructed with a Cartesian kinematic arrangement with three perpendicular linear axes. In this research, the cylindrical kinematic arrangement is introduced, and an analytical expression for the chord error for this arrangement is derived. The numerical simulations are performed to evaluate the chord errors for the cylindrical kinematic arrangement. It is found that cylindrical kinematic arrangement gives reduced chord error for some types of the desired toolpaths. Then, the kinematic redundancy is introduced to design a novel kinematic arrangement. Several desired toolpaths have been numerically simulated to evaluate the chord error for kinematically redundant arrangement. It is concluded that this arrangement gives up to 5 times reduced error for all the desired toolpaths considered, and allows significant gains in allowable feedrates. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Mechanical Engineering 2014

A engenharia geotécnica brasileira é fortemente dependente dos resultados do ensaio SPT, sendo de fundamental importância aprimorar os métodos de investigação e elaboração de projetos nesta área. Embora bastante utilizado, o ensaio tem sido objeto freqüente de críticas, abrangendo tanto aspectos relacionados à dispersão de resultados, quanto à dependência do operador e diversidade de equipamentos e procedimentos. Devido a estas limitações, estudos de medição de energia têm sido desenvolvidos visando a padronização do ensaio, sendo inúmeras as contribuições nesta área. Para validar abordagens baseadas em conceitos de energia e dinâmica foram projetados, construídos e testados equipamentos de penetração dentro dos princípios de escala e similaridade com o objetivo de avaliar as semelhanças geométricas envolvidas no processo de cravação dinâmico. Os equipamentos foram projetados de acordo com uma análise dimensional, que objetiva estabelecer condições de semelhança física entre os ensaios considerando-se relações entre as áreas transversais dos amostradores correspondentes a 0,5, 1,5 e 2,0 vezes a área do amostrador padrão. A engenharia geotécnica brasileira é fortemente dependente dos resultados do ensaio SPT, sendo de fundamental importância aprimorar os métodos de investigação e elaboração de projetos nesta área. Embora bastante utilizado, o ensaio tem sido objeto freqüente de críticas, abrangendo tanto aspectos relacionados à dispersão de resultados, quanto à dependência do operador e diversidade de equipamentos e procedimentos. Devido a estas limitações, estudos de medição de energia têm sido desenvolvidos visando a padronização do ensaio, sendo inúmeras as contribuições nesta área. Para validar abordagens baseadas em conceitos de energia e dinâmica foram projetados, construídos e testados equipamentos de penetração dentro dos princípios de escala e similaridade com o objetivo de avaliar as semelhanças geométricas envolvidas no processo de cravação dinâmico. Os equipamentos foram projetados de acordo com uma análise dimensional, que objetiva estabelecer condições de semelhança física entre os ensaios considerando-se relações entre as áreas transversais dos amostradores correspondentes a 0,5, 1,5 e 2,0 vezes a área do amostrador padrão. / The Brazilian geotechnical practice is heavily dependent on SPT tests and for this reason it is fundamental the improvements of interpretation method throughout systematic research in this area. Although widely used, the test has been the object of frequent criticism, due to aspects related to scatter in test data, dependence of the operator and diversity of equipment and procedures. Because of these limitations, studies of measured energy have been developed to standardize the test are of ultimate importance and so are the methods of interpretation based on energy. To validate approaches based on the concepts of energy and dynamic, an equipment was constructed and tested following the principles of scale and similarity in an attempt of evaluating the geometrical similarities involved in the dynamic driving process. The equipment has been designed according to a dimensional analysis, which aims to establish conditions of physical similarity between the tests considered to be 0.5, 1.5 and 2.0 times the area of the standard sampler. The use of a numerical program developed by Lobo et al (2007) allowed numerical simulations to be carried out in order to predict the sampler penetration ρ, as well as the energy and dynamic force produced during penetration. Through experimental analysis performed, it was possible to test the different geometries, using open and closed samplers, and two different lifting mechanisms for lifting the hammer, using steel wire and sisal rope. Despite the scatter, the various equipments and procedures produce similar when the principles of scale and similarity have been considered. Scatter is attributed to soil heterogeneity, efficiency and other factors inherent to dynamic penetration testing. From the experimental program, it has been concluded that concepts of similarity applied to dynamic tests have great potential in the interpretation of SPT data, which opens up new alternatives to the empirical methods currently adopted in practice.

Linear weirs are a common hydraulic structure that have been used for centuries with many different applications. One characteristic of weirs that is particularly useful is the head-discharge relationship where the discharge over the weir is directly related to the upstream water depth above the crest. In general, the head-discharge relationship for a weir is determined experimentally in laboratories using geometrically similar models. Due to space, time, money, and discharge capacity limitations at water laboratories, creating full scale models is not always a feasible option when determining head-discharge relationships for large prototype weirs. It is typically more cost effective to create a scale model than to build a full scale model or conduct tests on the prototype. Because of this fact, physical modeling has been one the most important tools in determining head-discharge relationships for weirs. However, as the physical size of the model decreases, size scale effects associated with surface tension and viscosity forces can significantly affect the results from the physical model and cause the results to differ from what would actually occur at the prototype scale. Therefore, it is important to understand what affects surface tension and viscosity forces have on the head-discharge relationship for different size weirs and when those effects are no longer negligible. The purpose of this research was to evaluate size scale effects for linear weirs. Weirs models of three different crest shapes (flat-top, quarter-round, and half-round) were constructed and tested at four different geometrically similar sizes [weir heights (P) = 24-, 12-, 6-, and 3-in]. This was done in order to evaluate how size scale effects affect the head-discharge relationship as model size decreases for different crest shapes. Discharge coefficients were calculated for relative upstream head values ranging from 0.01 ≤ Ht/P ≤ 2.0 for vented and non-vented conditions. Nappe aeration behavior was documented and compared to determine where differences in the nappe trajectory occurred as a result of scale effects. Comparisons were made with data from others researchers to determine if the recommendations for minimum head limits were similar to the results from this study. This study examined the errors in the discharge coefficient associated with size scale effects and suggested limits to avoidance depending on model scale and crest shape.

In the field of quantum gravity, it is widely expected that some form of a minimum length scale, or ultraviolet cutoff, exists in nature. Recently, a new natural ultraviolet cutoff that is fully covariant was proposed. In the literature, most studies of ultraviolet cutoffs are concerned with Lorentz-violating ultraviolet cutoffs. The difficulty in making a minimum length cutoff covariant is rooted in the fact that any given length scale can be further Lorentz contracted. It was shown that this problem is avoided by the proposed covariant cutoff by allowing field modes with arbitrarily small wavelengths to still exist, albeit with exceedingly small, covariantly-determined bandwidths. In other words, the degrees of freedom of sub-Planckian modes in time are highly suppressed. The effects of this covariant ultraviolet cutoff on the kinematics of a scalar quantum field are well understood. There is much to learn, however, about the effects on a field’s dynamics. These effects are of great interest, as their presence may have direct observational consequences in cosmology. As such, this covariant ultraviolet cutoff offers the tantalizing prospect of experimental access to physics at the Planck scale. In cosmology, the energy scales that are probed by measurements of cosmic microwave background (CMB) statistics are the closest that we can get to the Planck scale. In particular, the statistics of the CMB encodes information about the quantum fluctuations of the scalar inflaton field. A measure of the strength of a field’s quantum fluctuations is in turn given by the magnitude of the field’s Feynman propagator. To this end, in this thesis I study how this covariant ultraviolet cutoff modifies the Feynman propagator of a scalar quantum field. In this work, I first calculate the cutoff Feynman propagator for a scalar field in flat spacetime, and then I address the cutoff Feynman propagator of a scalar field in curved spacetime. My studies culminate with an explicit calculation for the case of a power-law Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) spacetime. This last calculation is cosmologically significant, as power-law FLRW spacetime is a prototypical and realistic model for early-universe inflation. In preparation for studying the covariant cutoff on curved spacetime, I will review the necessary back- ground material as well as the kinematic influence of the covariant cutoff. I will also discuss several side results that I have obtained on scalar quantum field theories in spacetimes which possess a finite start time.

In the present study, possible scale effects on the formation of air-entraining vortices at horizontal intakes are studied experimentally. Basic dimensionless parameters that govern the onset of vortices at a horizontal intake in a model and a prototype are stated by dimensional analysis. Series of experiments are conducted on four intake pipes of different diameters located in a large reservoir. The relationship of critical submergence ratio with other dimensionless parameters is considered for a given Froude number and it is found out that the critical submergence ratio is affected by model length scale ratio and its natural result of side-wall clearance ratio and Reynolds number differences between model and prototypes. It is observed that, side-wall clearance ratio is not effective on the critical submergence ratio after it exceeds about 6. In addition to this, Reynolds number limit, beyond which viscous forces do not affect the vortex flow, is found out to be increasing with the increase in Froude number. An empirical relationship, which gives the critical submergence ratio as a function of Froude number, side-wall clearance ratio and Reynolds number is obtained by using data collected in the experiments.

In the field of quantum gravity, it is widely expected that some form of a minimum length scale, or ultraviolet cutoff, exists in nature. Recently, a new natural ultraviolet cutoff that is fully covariant was proposed. In the literature, most studies of ultraviolet cutoffs are concerned with Lorentz-violating ultraviolet cutoffs. The difficulty in making a minimum length cutoff covariant is rooted in the fact that any given length scale can be further Lorentz contracted. It was shown that this problem is avoided by the proposed covariant cutoff by allowing field modes with arbitrarily small wavelengths to still exist, albeit with exceedingly small, covariantly-determined bandwidths. In other words, the degrees of freedom of sub-Planckian modes in time are highly suppressed. The effects of this covariant ultraviolet cutoff on the kinematics of a scalar quantum field are well understood. There is much to learn, however, about the effects on a field’s dynamics. These effects are of great interest, as their presence may have direct observational consequences in cosmology. As such, this covariant ultraviolet cutoff offers the tantalizing prospect of experimental access to physics at the Planck scale. In cosmology, the energy scales that are probed by measurements of cosmic microwave background (CMB) statistics are the closest that we can get to the Planck scale. In particular, the statistics of the CMB encodes information about the quantum fluctuations of the scalar inflaton field. A measure of the strength of a field’s quantum fluctuations is in turn given by the magnitude of the field’s Feynman propagator. To this end, in this thesis I study how this covariant ultraviolet cutoff modifies the Feynman propagator of a scalar quantum field. In this work, I first calculate the cutoff Feynman propagator for a scalar field in flat spacetime, and then I address the cutoff Feynman propagator of a scalar field in curved spacetime. My studies culminate with an explicit calculation for the case of a power-law Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) spacetime. This last calculation is cosmologically significant, as power-law FLRW spacetime is a prototypical and realistic model for early-universe inflation. In preparation for studying the covariant cutoff on curved spacetime, I will review the necessary back- ground material as well as the kinematic influence of the covariant cutoff. I will also discuss several side results that I have obtained on scalar quantum field theories in spacetimes which possess a finite start time.

abstract: Air pollution is a serious problem in most urban areas around the world, which has a number of negative ecological and human health impacts. As a result, it's vitally important to detect and characterize air pollutants to protect the health of the urban environment and our citizens. An important early step in this process is ensuring that the air pollution monitoring network is properly designed to capture the patterns of pollution and that all social demographics in the urban population are represented. An important aspect in characterizing air pollution patterns is scale in space and time which, along with pattern and process relationships, is a key subject in the field of landscape ecology. Thus, using multiple landscape ecological methods, this dissertation research begins by characterizing and quantifying the multi-scalar patterns of ozone (O3) and particulate matter (PM10) in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan region. Results showed that pollution patterns are scale-dependent, O3 is a regionally-scaled pollutant at longer temporal scales, and PM10 is a locally-scaled pollutant with patterns sensitive to season. Next, this dissertation examines the monitoring network within Maricopa County. Using a novel multiscale indicator-based approach, the adequacy of the network was quantified by integrating inputs from various academic and government stakeholders. Furthermore, deficiencies were spatially defined and recommendations were made on how to strengthen the design of the network. A sustainability ranking system also provided new insight into the strengths and weaknesses of the network. Lastly, the study addresses the question of whether distinct social groups were experiencing inequitable exposure to pollutants - a key issue of distributive environmental injustice. A novel interdisciplinary method using multi-scalar ambient pollution data and hierarchical multiple regression models revealed environmental inequities between air pollutants and race, ethnicity, age, and socioeconomic classes. The results indicate that changing the scale of the analysis can change the equitable relationship between pollution and demographics. The scientific findings of the scale-dependent relationships among air pollution patterns, network design, and population demographics, brought to light through this study, can help policymakers make informed decisions for protecting the human health and the urban environment in the Phoenix metropolitan region and beyond. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Biology 2014