abstract: Daily life stressors and negative emotional experiences predict poor physical and psychological health. The stress response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a primary biological system through which stressful experiences impact health and well-being across development. Individuals differ in their capacity for self-regulation and utilize various coping strategies in response to stress. Everyday experiences and emotions are highly variable during adolescence, a time during which self-regulatory abilities may become particularly important for adapting to shifting social contexts. Many adolescents in the U.S. enter college after high school, a context characterized by new opportunities and challenges for self-regulation. Guided by biopsychosocial and daily process approaches, the current study explored everyday stress and negative affect (NA), cortisol reactivity, and self-regulation assessed at the momentary, daily, and trait level among a racially/ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of first-year college students (N = 71; Mage = 18.85; 23% male; 52% non-Hispanic White) who completed a modified ecological momentary assessment. It was expected that within-person increases in momentary stress level or NA would be associated with cortisol reactivity assessed in college students' naturalistic settings. It was predicted that these within-person associations would differ based on engagement coping responses assessed via momentary diary reports, by the range of engagement coping responses assessed via diary reports at the end of the day, and by higher trait levels of self-regulation assessed via standard self-report questionnaire. Within-person increases in momentary stress level were significantly associated with momentary elevations in cortisol only during moments characterized by greater than usual engagement coping efforts (i.e., within-person increases). At a different level of analysis, within-person increases in momentary stress level were significantly associated with increases in cortisol only for those with low trait levels of coping efficacy and engagement coping. On average, within-person increases in momentary NA were significantly associated with cortisol reactivity. Tests of moderation revealed this momentary association was only significant for those with low trait levels of support-seeking coping. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2015

abstract: Pediatric obesity is a public health concern due to its elevated prevalence rates and its relation to concurrent and long-term physical and psychosocial consequences. Pediatric obesity has been found to be associated with problem behaviors, albeit with inconsistent findings. The mechanism of this relation is unclear. It is possible that they have a shared etiology. Self-regulation and parenting practices are two factors that have been implicated in the development of problem behaviors and are garnering evidence for their relation with pediatric obesity. The goal of the present study was to examine whether self-regulation (SREC), positive behavior support (PBSEC), and coercive limit-setting (CLSEC) in early childhood are shared etiological factors of pediatric obesity and problem behaviors. Using multinomial logistic regression the likelihood of belonging to four outcome groups (Comorbid, Problem behavior only, Overweight only, and Typically developing) at age 10 based on these factors was assessed. Analyses controlled for intervention group assignment, child gender, child African-American or Bi-racial, child Hispanic, cumulative risk, child body size impression at age 2, and parent body size impression at baseline. In the models examining SREC alone, for every 1 standard deviation increase in SREC, there was a reliable reduction in the odds of the child belonging to the comorbid and problem behavior only groups at age 10, compared to the typically developing group (OR = 0.386, 95% CI [0.237, 0.628], OR = 0.281, 95% CI [0.157, 0.503], respectively). This relation was maintained when SREC was in the same model as PBSEC and CLSEC. PBSEC and CLSEC alone did not impact the likelihood of belonging to any of the outcome groups. A significant interaction was found between SREC and CLSEC, such that at high levels of both SREC and CLSEC the odds of a child belonging to the overweight only group at age 10 increased, compared to the typically developing group. Results highlight CLSEC as a parenting practice that may place a highly regulated child at risk for becoming overweight. Overall, the findings suggest that problem behaviors and pediatric obesity do not have a shared etiology. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Psychology 2016

abstract: The present study examined the relations of children's effortful control (EC), emotion understanding, maladjustment, social competence, and relationship quality with nonparental caregivers in a sample of 30-, 42-, and 54-month olds. EC was measured with mothers' and caregivers' reports, as well as observed behavioral tasks. Emotion understanding was assessed by asking children to identify emotions during a puppet task. Mothers and caregivers also reported on children's problem behaviors and social competence. Caregivers provided reports of the quality of their relationship with children. Results from longitudinal structural equation models indicated that even after controlling for sex, SES, language ability, and previous levels of constructs, emotion understanding predicted EC one year later at 42 and 54 months. In addition, children with higher EC had more positive relationships with caregivers at 42 and 54 months. Although EC and EU were not significantly related to maladjustment and social competence after accounting for within time covariation among constructs and longitudinal stability, marginal findings were in expected directions and suggested that more regulated children with better emotion understanding skills had fewer behavioral problems and were more socially skilled. Findings are discussed in terms of the strengths and limitations of the present study. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Family and Human Development 2012

Exposure to environmental stressors may challenge children’s developing self-regulatory abilities and increase their risk of developing emotional and behavior problems. Interventions aimed at improving children’s self-regulatory skills, specifically emotion regulation and attentional control, may reduce children’s risk for adjustment problems. The present study proposed a novel theoretical model which describes how participation in yoga may increase children’s self-regulatory skills and increase children’s mindfulness, or the ability to focus attention on the present moment. Both self-regulation and mindfulness were expected to be associated with fewer anxiety problems. Components of the theoretical model were evaluated using a very small sample of at-risk, elementary-aged children who participated in a school-based yoga program. Consistent with expectations, emotion regulation was statistically and significantly associated with better mindfulness and less anxiety; attentional control was associated with fewer anxiety problems. Contrary to expectations, attentional control was unrelated to mindfulness. Moreover, mindfulness did not interact with either attentional control or emotion regulation to predict anxiety. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical implications and critical next steps needed to evaluate yoga as a potential tool for reducing children’s risk for problem behavior by way of strengthening self-regulatory mechanisms.

In exploring the role of social influences in the development of the self, the current study evaluated whether young adults use social comparisons in developing their hoped-for possible selves and, if so, whether their developmental process correlates with self-regulatory processes and positive mental health outcomes. The current study found the following: (1) the domains of hoped-for possible selves among young adults were related to the gender of the social comparison target, (2) the direction of young adults’ social comparison processes (upward or downward) did not significantly influence self-regulatory processes (self-efficacy and outcome expectancy) toward achieving their hoped-for possible selves, (3) strong masculine gender identification related to greater outcome expectancy, while strong feminine gender identification related to both greater self-efficacy and outcome expectancy, and (4) self-efficacy related to less state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression, while outcome expectancy related only to less trait anxiety. Males and females were found to use traditional gender role identification in forming their hoped-for possible selves.

Gaps. University student-athletes face several unique demands that can contribute to greater levels of stress (Gould & Whitley, 2009; Kimball & Freysinger, 2003). If unresolved, stress can compromise well-being and lead to burnout (DeFreese & Smith, 2014). Many studies have shed light on the burnout process of athletes (Goodger, Gorely, Lavallee, & Harwood, 2007; Gustafsson, Kenttä, & Hassmén, 2011). Yet, despite the negative outcomes reported, little has been done to remediate the incidence of burnout in sport. As such, researchers have called for intervention studies to find ways to alleviate and prevent burnout as this type of research is practically non-existent (Eklund & DeFreese, 2015; Goodger, Gorely et al., 2007; Gustafsson et al., 2011; Lonsdale, Hodge, & Rose, 2009) Aim. The overall aim of this research was to investigate the implementation and impact of an individual, feel-based, person-centered self-regulation intervention on the levels and experiences of stress, burnout, well-being, and self-regulation capacity of university student-athletes with moderate to high levels of burnout. Four studies guided by specific objectives were carried out over two phases, that is, the screening phase and the intervention phase. Screening phase. The objective of the study conducted in the screening phase was to examine the levels of burnout among student-athletes at two Canadian universities and investigate whether there were significant differences related to gender, sport, year of university sport participation, academic year, and academic program (Article 1). Results of this study served to identify student-athletes for the intervention phase. Intervention phase. Three studies were conducted in the intervention phase. The objective of the first study was to implement and assess the impact of a self-regulation intervention on the stress, burnout, well-being and self-regulation capacity of university student-athletes experiencing moderate to high levels of burnout (Article 2). The objective of the second study was to investigate the intervention process and experiences of four student-athletes by chronologically presenting their story in order to address how they developed their self-regulation capacity over the course of the season, and the strategies they used to influence their experiences of stress, burnout, and well-being (Article 3). Finally, the objective of the third study in this phase was to investigate the integration and adaptation of the Cognitive-Affective Stress-Based Burnout Model (CASBBM) to facilitate positive changes in student-athletes participating in an individual self-regulation intervention to alleviate burnout symptoms (Article 4). Methods. Screening phase. To address the objective of the study conducted in the screening phase, 147 student-athletes from different sports at two Canadian universities completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ, Raedeke & Smith, 2001) and a demographic questionnaire one month prior to the start of their athletic season. Statistical tests were computed based on the complete score set of 145 participants to assess their burnout levels and correlations between the three burnout subscales (i.e., physical and emotional exhaustion, reduced accomplishment, sport devaluation). In addition, a series of one-way between subject ANOVAS, independent t-tests and post-hoc analyses were performed to determine if there were any significant differences in burnout levels across different demographic variables (i.e., gender, sport, year of university sport participation, academic year, and academic program; Article 1). Intervention phase. Next, to address the objectives of the three studies carried out in the intervention phase, eight university student-athletes from the screening phase having scored 3.0 or higher on the physical and emotional exhaustion and reduced accomplishment subscales of the ABQ (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006) took part in an individual, person-centered, feel-based self-regulation intervention guided by the CASBBM (Smith, 1986) and the Resonance Performance Model (Callary & Durand-Bush, 2008). The student-athletes met with the trained researcher every two weeks throughout their athletic season to develop their capacity to manage their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours on a daily basis and to cope with adversity, including stressful situations that contributed to their stress and burnout symptoms. In addition to participating in these multiple intervention sessions, they partook in a pre- and post-intervention interview. All sessions and interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and subjected to a deductive and inductive analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005), following steps to strengthen trustworthiness. Self-report measures of stress, burnout, well-being, and self-regulation capacity were also completed by the eight student-athletes at four time points to fulfill the objective of the first study in this phase. Descriptive statistics and repeated measures ANOVAs were performed to assess levels and identify any significant changes across the four time points. Results were triangulated with that from the qualitative data analysis (Article 2). With regards to the second study, the researcher used the results of the deductive and inductive qualitative data analysis to select four cases based on their distinct profiles and conveyed their intervention experiences by constructing chronological, first-person narratives (Article 3). For the third study, a broader level of qualitative data analysis was performed to compare and contrast the data with the components of the CASBBM to examine its applicability as an intervention tool (Article 4). Results. As shown in Article 1, few student-athletes (1.4%) had elevated burnout scores on all three burnout subscales. However, several of them (17%) scored high on two of the three subscales of the ABQ, revealing signs of burnout. No significant differences emerged with regards to student-athletes’ year of university sport participation, academic year, and academic program. However, women had higher levels of emotional and physical exhaustion than men. Furthermore, exhaustion scores were significantly higher for swimmers and basketball players than for hockey players and fencers. Finally, fencers had significantly higher levels of sport devaluation than hockey and volleyball players. Article 2 indicates that the intervention had a positive impact on the student-athletes’ stress, burnout, well-being, and self-regulation capacity. At the onset of the intervention, the participants had moderate to high levels of stress and burnout as well as low levels of well-being and self-regulation capacity. As the intervention progressed, the student-athletes reported increased self-regulation capacity and well-being, and reduced stress and burnout. The qualitative data corroborated these changes. Through detailed narratives, Article 3 demonstrates how the student-athletes learned to develop their self-regulation capacity by implementing various processes such as goal-setting, planning, time management, cognitive restructuring, self-control, visualization, and self-reflection. The participants shared concrete examples illustrating how they learned to become more aware and autonomous, and proactively mobilize resources in order to manage the many academic and sport demands they faced throughout the season. Concurrent with their increased capacity to self-regulate, the athletes experienced positive outcomes such as lower perceived stress and burnout, higher well-being, and improved performance. Lastly, Article 4 shows that the extensive data emerging from the multiple intervention sessions and pre- and post-intervention interviews supported, for the most part, the components of the CASBBM (Smith, 1986). However, the model was not sufficient or comprehensive enough to account for the student-athletes’ changes in their burnout process as a result of the intervention. As such, the DCASBBM, an adapted and dynamic version of the CASBBM, was created, reflecting both positive and negative aspects of personal characteristics, situations, cognitive appraisals, multidimensional responses, coping, self-regulation, and outcomes that evolved as a result of participating in a self-regulation intervention. The DCASBBM can serve as an intervention tool to help prevent and remediate symptoms of stress and burnout.

The purpose of this research was to establish the feasibility of delivering a 6-week long adapted Mindfulness for Academic Success (MAS) program to post-secondary students who were experiencing difficulties with their academic performance. Feasibility was established based on recruitment success (70%), program attendance (70% of participants attending at least four sessions), and homework compliance (70% homework completed). In addition, we hoped to establish the MAS program’s preliminary efficacy in improving executive and academic functioning and reducing mind wandering, inattention, symptoms of ADHD, and psychological distress. Forty participants from Carleton University were randomized to the MAS program (n = 20) or waitlist (WL) condition (n = 20). The overall dropout rate in this study was 38 %. Forty-five percent of the MAS program and 80% of the WL condition participants completed the study. MAS program completers complied with 32% of the overall homework during the five week reporting period and no student completed individually more than 57% of the assigned homework tasks. Accordingly, we did not meet the session attendance or homework completion feasibility requirements. Our preliminary efficacy results indicated significant improvements in some program outcomes in the intent-to-treat sample and results were more robust for MAS completers. Specifically executive functioning—self-management to time, self-organization, self monitoring, self-regulation of emotions, and executive function (EF) related ADHD symptoms—improved and ADHD symptoms decreased in the intent-to-treat sample and results were more robust in the completer sample. Psychological distress symptoms (depression and stress) and mind wandering decreased only in MAS program completers, but no changes were noted in students’ ability to pay attention to presented information during the mind wandering task. Academic functioning as measured by selecting main ideas, the use of study aids, and time management improved in both the intent-to-treat and completer samples. Changes in concentration and information processing were only evident for MAS program completers, however, changes were also noted in academic anxiety, motivation, and the use of test strategies, although effects were small. No changes were observed in participants’ self-restraint (EF), generalized anxiety, attitude toward school, and the use of self-testing in exam preparation. Although efficacy results suggest the MAS program may be beneficial, low program compliance and lack of change in students’ levels of mindfulness compromise the internal validity of this study and make drawing causal conclusions about the program’s efficacy difficult. Furthermore, while program attendance and homework compliance were correlated with some program outcomes, the lack of correlation between formal practices of mindfulness and program outcomes suggest that non-specific factors may have contributed to observed improvement in study outcomes.

Self-regulation is necessary for success in any learning context, but for adult immigrants to the United States who are trying to learn English, it is critical. This qualitative research investigated 46 such learners enrolled in a blended English language course. Using Zimmerman’s 6 dimensions of self-regulation as a framework and data from observations, interviews, and reflexive journals, we attempted to understand and describe how these learners experienced self-regulation. We found that although these learners had strong desires to learn English, they lacked the self-regulation abilities that could bring their desires to fruition. They had difficulty transferring their desires to learn English into persistent motivation, effective goals, and management of time and physical environment so they could prepare for class and complete the online modules. They were more proficient in proactively using language learning strategies and creating a social network to which they could turn for help. However, in both of those areas, they did not evaluate their activities to see where they could improve. The results suggest that embedding self-regulation instruction into a language course could increase learner retention and academic success. When designing such instruction for these adult learners, designers should adapt their instruction to the type of access the students have, their culture and values, and the context of their lives.

Based within the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the overall objective of this thesis was to examine how motivational processes involved in the regulation of eating give rise to different self-regulation strategies in terms of eating quality and quantity, and how the adoption of these strategies influence women’s eating behaviors and life satisfaction over time. This objective was achieved through a series of eight studies, divided into four manuscripts. First, a measure that would allow us to assess healthy and unhealthy eating behaviors based on recent recommendations of Canada’s Food Guide was developed and validated. In Manuscript #1, we validated the Healthy and Unhealthy Eating Behavior Scale (HUEBS) by examining the structure of the scale (Study 1 N = 360; Study 2 N = 711) and by establishing convergent validity through the examination of the relationships between motivational concepts, healthy and unhealthy eating behaviors as measured by the HUEBS, and waist circumference (Study 2 N = 711; Study 3 N = 264). Results supported the factor structure of the scale. It was also demonstrated that as women moved along stages of change for eating regulation, they reported higher levels of self-determined (versus non-self-determined) motivation and a higher consumption of healthy (versus unhealthy) foods. Furthermore, findings showed that healthy eating fully mediated the relationship between self-determined motivation and waist-circumference, and that the relationship between self-determined motivation and healthy eating was moderated by stages of change. Since there was also a need to develop a scale that would allow us to measure planning and self-monitoring strategies in terms of eating quality (i.e., nutrient intake) and quantity (i.e., calories and portion sizes), Manuscript #2 validated the Planning and Self-Monitoring the Quality and Quantity Scale (PMQQS; Study 1 N = 355; Study 2 N = 318). Results supported the 6-factor structure of the scale and demonstrated that strategies related to the quality of eating were more strongly and positively associated with healthy eating and more strongly and negatively associated with unhealthy eating, whereas strategies related to the quantity of eating were more strongly and positively associated with bulimic symptoms and Body Mass Index (BMI). Manuscript #3 then examined if the strategies assessed by the PMQQS provided additional variance to eating behaviors over and above the effects of motivation (Study 1 N = 456) and if the strategies mediated the relationships between motivation and eating, while controlling for BMI (Study 1 N = 456; Study 2 N = 979). Overall, it was found that strategies played a significant role in explaining eating behaviors and that planning and self-monitoring the quality of eating mediated the relationships between autonomous motivation and healthy and unhealthy eating, whereas planning and self-monitoring the quantity of eating mediated the relationship between controlled motivation and bulimic symptoms. Finally, in Manuscript #4, we tested a longitudinal model (N = 230) examining the roles of goals and motivation in the prediction of the strategies and various types of eating and the effects of adopting these behaviors on life satisfaction over a 3-month period. Results revealed that intrinsic goals were positively associated with autonomous motivation whereas extrinsic goals were positively associated with controlled motivation for eating regulation at Time 1 (the baseline), and that autonomous motivation positively predicted quality strategies whereas controlled motivation positively predicted quantity strategies at Time 2 (1 month). Planning and self-monitoring quality then predicted healthy and unhealthy eating behaviors, whereas planning and self-monitoring quantity predicted bulimic symptoms at Time 3 (3 months). Finally, healthy eating was positively associated with life satisfaction, whereas bulimic symptoms was negatively associated with life satisfaction at Time 3. Overall, this thesis increases knowledge on why some women succeed, whereas others fail, to regulate their eating behaviors over time.

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