Five penguin species breed in Antarctica: emperors, Adélies, chinstraps, gentoos and macaronis. These are important Antarctic mid-trophic level predators and under predicted climate change are believed threatened. Accurate monitoring of populations is therefore of growing importance owing to the changing environment in which they live, particularly on the Western Antarctic Peninsula where rapid warming is occurring. The inaccessibility and size of many colonies makes ground based monitoring difficult with remote sensing providing an alternative, relatively low cost, monitoring method. Advancing current monitoring methods will help improve estimates of population trajectories at a regional scale. Recent and future progress in remote sensing, with new satellite sensors and platforms, offers increased potential for accurate, consistent large-scale data collection. The work in this thesis focuses on difficult to monitor brush-tailed penguins (Adélies, chinstraps and gentoos), aiming to develop new techniques and algorithms to improve their monitoring by satellite imagery. Penguin detection in satellite imagery is based on the red/brown guano stains that colonies create, with these stains evident from space. Fieldwork undertaken in Antarctica (Nov 2014-Jan 2015) using a field spectroradiometer obtained the first in situ hyperspectral reflectance spectra of Adélie and chinstrap guano. These spectra are used to identify the features responsible for varying guano types and suggest new indices for differentiating these in satellite imagery. Satellite imagery coincident with the fieldwork, obtained from WorldView-3 (~40 cm resolution) and Landsat 8 (~15 m resolution), are used to trial the index derived from the field spectra. Analysis of the field data and satellite images includes examination of guano colour for different species and comparison of methods of guano detection, aiming to enhance species detection from satellite imagery. In addition, Landsat 8 imagery from further locations is used to produce time series of this index for colonies, examining how guano colour changes over the breeding season are seen in satellite imagery. This dissertation concludes with recommendations for future developments of satellite-based methods based on the results of these analyses. Such improvements should help improve our current understanding of penguin population and continuing population changes in relation to climate change.

Retreating glaciers are leaving behind deglaciated areas, lacking biological life, presenting opportunities for specialist species to colonize. Lichens possess the ability, due to the symbiosis with nitrogen fixating photobionts, to colonize these deglaciated areas even in harsh environments like in the European Alps or maritime Antarctica. I hypothesized that there are no differences in lichen species richness, diversity, and evenness in deglaciated areas within four Alpine glaciers as well as four Alpine glaciers and one Antarctic glacier, yet there are differences between four successional zones in the same areas. Furthermore, there are no lichen species that colonize both the European Alps and Antarctica. Study sites consisted of Morteratsch Glacier, Gaisbergferner Glacier, Rötkees Glacier and Pasterze Glacier in the Alps as well as McLeod Glacier on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands, Antarctica. Four indexes were calculated: alpha diversity, Shannon Index, Menhinicks Index and Pielou Index and compared with Anova and Kruskal-Wallis tests. The results showed no significant differences for the species richness, diversity, and evenness of lichen species for the Alpine and Antarctic study sites yet there were differences found between the successional zones. Four lichen species were found in all the Alpine study sites, yet no common lichen species were present in the Alpine and Antarctic sites. Environmental conditions differ between the Alps and Antarctica which is reflected in the anomaly of the Menhinicks Index and furthermore, sexual, or vegetative reproduction influences lichen species present. The successional zones did not follow the chronological order since deglaciation which might reflect an increase in species competition as vegetation develops under time. Lichen species are understudied, and further research might not only give insights into inner processes in lichens but also about how to survive in extreme environments. / Glaciärer som drar sig tillbaka lämnar efter sig områden som saknar biologiskt liv, vilket skapar möjlighet för specialister att inta dessa områden. Lavar har förmågan att kolonisera sådana isfria områden på grund av sin symbios med kväve-fixerande fotobionter även om miljöerna är hårda som i den europeiska Alperna eller det maritima Antarktis. Mina hypoteser är att det inte finns skillnader i lavarnas artrikedom, diversitet och jämnhet i de områden som nyligen blivit isfria inom fyra alpina glaciärer samt mellan de fyra alpina glaciärerna och en antarktisk glaciär men att det finns skillnader mellan fyra successionala zoner i samma områden. Vidare finns det inga lavarter som koloniserar båda Alperna och Antarktis. Studieområdena bestod av: Morteratsch-glaciär, Gaisbergferner-glaciär, Rötkees-glaciär och Pasterze-glaciär i Alperna samt McLeod-glaciär på Signyön, Syd Orkneyöarna, Antarktis. Fyra index beräknades: alfa diversitet, Shannon Index, Menhinicks Index och Pielou Index och jämfördes med Anova och Kruskal-Wallis testerna. Resultaten visade inga signifikanta skillnader för artens rikedom, mångfald och jämnhet av lavarterna för lavarter i alpina och antarktiska studieområdena, men det fanns skillnader mellan de successionella zonerna. Fyra lavarter hittades på alla alpina studieplatser, men inga gemensamma lavarter fanns på de alpina och antarktiska platserna. Miljöförhållanden skiljer sig mellan Alperna och Antarktis, vilket syns i avvikelsen av Menhinicks Index och dessutom påverkar sexuell eller asexuell reproduktion förekomsten av lavarter. Successionszonerna följde inte den kronologiska ordningen efter reträtten av glaciärerna vilket kan återspegla en ökning av artkonkurrensen när vegetationen utvecklar sig över tiden. Lavarna är underforskade och ytterligare forskning kan ge upplysningar i interna processer men även insikter kring hur överlevnad blir säkerställd i extrema miljöer.

No description available.