This dissertation addresses the role of recipe writing in the culture and development of empiricism in Spain over the course of the long sixteenth century. In 1516, Charles of Habsburg was named King of Spain, and began his project to consolidate and extend Spanish rule, picking up where his grandparents, Isabel and Ferdinand, left off. While the Iberian Monarchy attempted to control empirical practice and knowledge of the natural world by way of its administrative institutions, Europe was developing a bit of a recipe habit. Across sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe, there was an surge in readership of recipe books, manuals, books of secrets, and artes, as well as any other book containing recipes (including natural histories). Much like today, there was a rich culture of recipe writing and exchange. When it came to household affairs such as cooking, toiletries and cosmetics, cleaning, and pharmaceuticals, most people had their own practices, and many were also willing to share their tested recipes with others. As I argue in this dissertation, local experimentation and the exchange of said knowledge took place among heterogenous networks of practitioners across Habsburg Spain. While the Crown was influenced by these practices and often appropriated them as well, it was not the only force behind the empirical turn in the history of science and medicine in Spain. Rather, local practitioners and cohorts of experimenting nobles and laypeople alike all played a role in the turn toward experimentation as scientific method.

Over the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, canvas substituted panel or wall as the preferred support for painting in Venice, moving from the periphery to the core of artmaking. As it did so, canvas became key to the artistic processes and novel pictorial language developed by painters like Titian, Tintoretto and Veronese. Sixteenth-century critics associated canvas with painting in Venice, a connection that has persisted to become a veritable trope of Venetian art history. Despite this, we have hitherto lacked a convincing account of Venetian canvas supports and their impact. This dissertation, by examining the adoption, development, and significance of canvas in Venetian art over the period 1400 to 1600, attempts to provide one. Approaching canvas from multiple perspectives, this project offers a deeper understanding of what early modern canvas was at a material level, how it was made and supplied to painters, and its catalyzing role in early modern Venetian art. By tracing precisely how canvas operates within paintings, focusing on lodestar examples whilst drawing on extensive and intensive object-based research carried out on a large corpus, this thesis demonstrates how actively canvas participated in the elaboration of the pictorial poetics of mature Cinquecento art in Venice. It argues that we owe the existence of this distinctive artistic idiom in no small part to the twist of a yarn, the roughness of a thread, the thickness of a stitch. Canvas was critical to both the making and the meaning of these pictures. The wider aims of the project are twofold: on the one hand, to model a methodology that integrates approaches such as visual, textual, and sociocultural analysis with technical art history and conservation-informed comprehension of the materially altered nature of art objects; on the other, to contribute to an account of the history of an art form—the canvas picture—that still occupies a central role in the global art world today.

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Papal primacy rests on a single line of scripture: Matthew 16:18, “You are Peter and on this rock I will build my church.” The question of whether or not Christ vested the full authority of the Christian Church to Peter alone allowed secular rulers and reformers alike to dispute the legitimacy of the papal institution. In the period leading up to the opening of the Council of Trent, papal primacy became a fundamental concern. Popes claimed that any threat to their plenitudo potestatis jeopardized the unity of the faith, while their opponents saw it as the main hurdle towards religious and civic autonomy. During this time, a series of ongoing papal commissions beginning with Paul III Farnese (1534-1549) and continuing through the pontificate of Gregory XIII Boncompagni (1572-1585) sourced pictorial content from the Acts of the Apostles and the Life of Peter. These pontiffs were able to legitimize and bolster their authority by investing in Petrine and Pauline imagery that promoted the Apostolic identity of the church at a crucial turning point when the very definition of doctrine was intensely debated. This project traces how a coherent and consistent program for leveraging cultural capital emerged across five decorative programs within the Apostolic Palace: the Pauline Chapel (1542-45/1573-76/1580-85), the Casino of Pius IV (1562-63), a previously unknown series of frescoes for the landings of the palace staircases (1572), the second loggia (c. 1574/75), and the area above the portico of Saint Peter’s Basilica (c. 1575/76). Over the course of forty years, the papacy employed artists such as Michelangelo Buonarroti, Perino del Vaga, Giorgio Vasari, Lorenzo Sabbatini, Federico Zuccaro, and many others to visually concretize these Apostolic-focused narratives. Besides painted programs, the larger visual strategy capitalized on a broader scope of media. This included cope decorations, carved marble reliefs, and papal medals, which helped circulate and solidify the thematic typological associations between the Apostolic age and the Tridentine era. By the end of the sixteenth century, the systematic development of the papacy’s Apostolic identity had taken such a firm hold that it continued with Clement VIII Aldobrandini (1592-1605) in the altarpieces chosen for the small nave of new St. Peter’s Basilica, and with Paul V Borghese (1605-1621) at his eponymously named Pauline Chapel. What emerges from this analysis is the collective organization of a papal identity built around the lived and witnessed experience of the disciples that predates the full expression of a Counter-Reformation ideology. / Art History

At no point in the apocryphal text does Judith, a wise and beautiful Jewish widow, sit on Holofernes, the Assyrian general laying siege to her city. Yet, in 1525, Barthel Beham, a young artist from Nuremberg, created Judith Seated on the Body of Holofernes, an engraving in which a voluptuous nude Judith sits atop Holofernes’s nude torso. Neither the textual nor the visual traditions explain Beham’s choice to perch the chaste woman on top of her slain enemy, so what sources inspired the printmaker? What is the meaning of Judith’s provocative position? The tiny printed image depicts the relationship between a male figure and a female figure. Thus, in order to appreciate the complexity of that relationship, I begin this thesis by reviewing what it meant to be a man and what it meant to be a woman in early sixteenth-century Germany. Because gender roles and the dynamics between the sexes were so complex, I encourage scholars to reevaluate Weibermacht (Power of Women) imagery. The nudity of Beham’s Judith and her intimate proximity to Holofernes suggest that Judith Seated on the Body of Holofernes is a Weibermacht print. In fact, Judith’s pose specifically echoes that of Phyllis riding Aristotle, a popular Weibermacht narrative. The combined eroticism of Judith’s exposed body and her compromising position would have appealed broadly to male viewers, but Beham likely targeted an erudite audience of well-educated, affluent men when he designed the multivalent print. Through close visual analysis and careful consideration of which prints circulated in early sixteenth-century Nuremberg, I argue that Beham’s Judith resembles witches riding backwards on goats, crouching Venuses, and a woman in the “reverse-cowgirl” sex position. Admittedly, it is impossible to know which sources Beham studied in preparation for Judith Seated on the Body of Holofernes, but I am inclined to believe that he wanted each of those jocular references to enrich the meaning of his work, providing a witty commentary on the power of women. But regardless of the artist’s intentionality, I think visually literate viewers would have recognized and enjoyed decoding the layers of meaning in Beham’s odd engraving. / text

Le présent mémoire cherche à comprendre la nature des rapports entre la ville de Paris et le roi Charles IX grâce à l’étude de l’entrée royale de ce dernier dans la capitale en 1571. Pour l’historien, l’étude des grands rituels monarchiques permet de saisir les mécanismes symboliques de communication qui créent en quelque sorte le pouvoir royal. L’entrée royale, rituel codifié durant lequel une ville accueille son souverain, permet d’observer la nature des rapports entre le pouvoir monarchique et le pouvoir urbain. Généralement perçue comme un moment consensuel, l’entrée royale peut aussi servir de cadre pour les édiles urbains afin d’exprimer leurs désaccords à l’égard des politiques du roi. La confrontation entre la relation officielle de l’entrée et les archives municipales met au jour une série de ratés nous permettant de déconstruire l’image de concorde longtemps associée à l’entrée de 1571. Loin d’être un portrait élogieux du roi Charles IX, le programme de l’entrée parisienne de 1571 célèbre plutôt Catherine de Médicis et le duc Henri d’Anjou. En cela, les édiles parisiens expriment leurs critiques face à un pouvoir monarchique dont l’inaction durant les guerres de religion illustre la trop grande faiblesse. / This dissertation seeks to understand the nature of the relationship between the city of Paris and king Charles IX through the study of his royal entry in 1571. For historians, the study of the major monarchical rituals captures the mechanisms of symbolic communication that create the royal power. The royal entry, a codified ritual during which a city host his sovereign, shows the nature of the power dynamic between the monarchy and the urban centre. Generally seen as a consensual moment, the royal entry can also serve as a framework for the urban councillors to express their disagreement with the king’s policies. The comparison between the official relation of the entry and the municipal archives reveals a set of blunders that allows us to deconstruct the consistent image of concord long been associated with the 1571 entry. Far from being a glorious portrait of king Charles IX, the entry program rather celebrate Catherine de Medici and Duke Henry of Anjou. The Parisian councillors express therefore their critics against a monarchy whose inaction during the religious wars illustrates his weakness.

On trouvera dans cette thèse une édition critique, une traduction italienne et une étude introductive à la Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem du juriste français Jean Bodin (1530-1596), mieux connu pour être l'auteur des Six livres de la République (1576), vrai chef d'oeuvre de la pensée politique du XVI siècle. Publiée d'abord à Paris en 1566, pour être ensuite reprise, corrigée et augmentée par son auteur et publiée une seconde fois chez le même éditeur en 1572, la Methodus rémonte à une phase cruciale et fascinante de la pensée bodinienne, toujours en pleine évolution. Rien de la République qui va paraître quelques ans plus tard n'est encore donné ici, et pourtant on peut déjà très bien voir l'itinéraire intellectuel qui mène Bodin du constitutionnalisme de sa jeunesse (idée d'une monarchie temperée et limitée) vers cette théorie de la souveraineté absolue qu'il formule pour la première fois en 1576, et qui marquera un tournant décisif pour la pensée politique des siècles suivants. Cette édition, grâce à un travail systématique d'identification des variantes et des ajouts introduits par l'auteur à l'occasion de la deuxième édition parisienne (1572), permet pour la première fois de mettre en place une étude évolutive de la pensée bodinienne au cours de cette décennie cruciale 1566-1576, de remettre certaines idées politiques de Bodin dans leur contexte, de formuler de nouvelles hypothèses autour de leur genèse, et de mieux saisir enfin différences et analogies entre la Methodus et la République. Dans l'étude introductive, où l'on souligne avec force l'unité d'inspiration de la Methodus et son originalité par rapport à la République, on propose également une nouvelle interprétation de la “naissance de l'absolutisme” bodinien: à l'appui des variantes de 1572, on cherche à montrer qu'aucun “tournant absolutiste” n'eut lieu chez Bodin à la suite de la Sainte-Barthélémy, puisque l'évolution de la pensée bodinienne dans un sens anti-constitutionnaliste était déjà en cours bien avant cette date, pour des raisons qui ont moins à voir avec le contexte historico-politique (certes troublé) de la France des années 1570, qu'avec un souci d'exactitude et de cohérence théorique très aigu chez cet auteur. / This dissertation consists of a critical edition, Italian translation and introductory essay to Jean Bodin's Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem. Jean Bodin (1530-1596) is best known as the author of the Six livres de la République (1576), a true masterpiece of sixteenth-century political thought. First published in Paris in 1566, the Methodus was then reworked, revised and augmented by Bodin, and printed again by the same editor in 1572. The Methodus belongs to a crucial and fascinanting period of Bodin's thought, which was then still largely evolving. The République is still a long way to come, and yet one can already spot in the Methodus a few hints of Bodin's ongoing journey from constitutionnalism (basically, the idea of a monarchy limited by a range of checks and balances) to absolute sovereignty – a concept that Bodin formulates for the first time in 1576, and that represents a crucial step in modern political theory. This edition results from systematic comparisons between the first two French editions (1566, 1572), the only ones directly supervised by the author himself. All of the variants and additions which Bodin made in view of the second edition of 1572 have been carefully identified, shown in the critical apparatus, and thoroughly discussed. Thanks to this fresh textual material, it will now be possible to study the evolution of Bodin's thought more closely across this crucial decade, 1566-1576; it will also be possible to recontextualise Bodin's political ideas, to formulate new hypothesis concerning their genesis, and hopefully to better grasp differences and analogies between the Methodus and the République. In the introductory essay, a few points are made to argue in favour of the internal unity of the Methodus and its relative autonomy vis-à-vis the République. Then, using abundant evidence yielded by the variants and additions of 1572, it is argued that, contrarily to what many believe, there was nothing like an “absolutist turn” in Bodin's thought, and that Bodin's drifting away from constitutionnalism towards “absolute sovereignty” should not be too rigidly connected with St Bartholomew's massacre and with the consequent polemics against the monarchomaques. As far as Bodin is concerned, indeed, his intellectual evolution had taken an anti-constitutionnalist direction well before August 1572, for reasons which seem to owe less to the political context of 1570's France, than to a concern for conceptual exactness and consistency which is in fact quite typical of this author.

Un des plus illustres penseurs de l’Espagne du XVIe siècle, Francisco Sánchez de las Brozas (1523-1600) n’a pourtant pas fait l’objet de travaux qui englobent la totalité de sa production et resituent sa pensée dans l’histoire des idées de son époque. Professeur de grec et de rhétorique à l’université de Salamanque, il publie sur des sujets aussi variés que la grammaire, l’astronomie, la poésie ou la dialectique. Nous nous proposons de comprendre son oeuvre comme étant structurée par deux questions fondamentales. D’une part, Sanctius repense les trois arts du trivium pour donner une importance nouvelle à la dialectique et en faire un véritable art de penser. D’autre part, il développe diverses interrogations liées au concept de méthode pour apprendre, raisonner, transmettre les disciplines ; en somme, pour diriger l’esprit. Sánchez de las Brozas se donne et revendique une série de critères qui rendent possible la rigueur de la pensée : il pense la méthode. La méthode est celle qu’il applique lui-même à ses démonstrations pour leur donner légitimité, validité et acuité. Mais elle est aussi ce concept qui exprime une volonté de pouvoir organiser les disciplines et rationnaliser. Nous nous proposons donc de l’envisager à la fois comme un enseignant, un penseur, un humaniste mais aussi comme un intellectuel impliqué dans la diffusion de ses idées. En comprenant Sanctius parmi les penseurs de la méthode du XVIe siècle, nous inscrivons notre travail dans un courant de l’histoire des idées qui entend démontrer l’importance de l’humanisme philosophique du XVIe siècle dans la construction de paradigmes fondamentaux de la pensée du XVIIe siècle. / One of the most famous and acclaimed thinker of sixteenth-century Spain, Francisco Sánchez de las Brozas, Sanctius (1523-1600), has never been properly studied in a research work that would embrace his complete production and understand it in the History of ideas of his time. A teacher of rhetoric and Greek at the university of Salamanca, he published in a great variety of fields such as grammar, astronomy, poetry or logic. We offer to understand his works as structured by two main axes. First of all, Sanctius produces an important reflection on the three arts of the trivium in which he gives a specific emphasis on logic and turns it into a true art of thinking. Also, he develops several reflections around the concept of method to learn, reason and transmit the disciplines. To do so, he uses several intellectual criteria to ensure the accuracy of thinking: he is a thinker of method. Method is what he himself applies in all his demonstrations to give them legitimacy, validity and accuracy. But it is also a concept that expresses a will to organize and rationalize the disciplines. We thus aim at contemplating him at the same time as the teacher, the thinker, the humanist and the intellectual engaged in making his ideas be heard. By understanding Sanctius as a thinker of method, we follow a path set in History of ideas that aims at highlighting the importance of sixteenth-century philosophical humanism in the construction of fundamental paradigms of seventeenth-century thought.

Este trabalho contempla a teoria e prática da música inglesa do final do século XVI e início do XVII. Seu objetivo central é oferecer uma tradução comentada da primeira parte do tratado A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke\" (1597) de Thomas Morley, amparada por notas explicativas e críticas que tratam dos problemas referentes à terminologia e algumas questões de caráter histórico. A escolha do tratado de Morley para a presente pesquisa deve-se ao seu enfoque completo e pedagógico das principais definições da teoria musical da época e é na primeira parte do tratado que todos os elementos melódicos e rítmicos necessários para a leitura de uma partitura são apresentados. Portanto, a tradução para o português desta importante obra será muito útil para músicos e editores, pois permitirá realizar transcrições, leituras críticas de edições modernas e leitura em fac-símile. Além disso, será essencial para o estudo da música inglesa daquele período, considerando que a prática musical inglesa difere, em alguns aspectos, daquela ensinada no continente europeu. / This research contemplates the theory and practice of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century English music. Its main objective is to provide a commented translation of the first part of \"The Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke\" (1597) by Thomas Morley supported by explanatory notes and criticisms dealing with problems related to terminology and reflections on historical matters. The choice of Morleys treatise for this research is due to its comprehensive teaching of the main definitions of music theory at that time. It is in the first part that all the melodic and rhythmic elements necessary for the reading of a musical score are presented. Therefore, the translation of this important work into Portuguese should be very useful for musicians and publishers, as it will allow transcriptions and critical readings of modern editions and reading in facsimile. Moreover, it should also be essential for the study of English music of that period, as the English musical practice differs in some respects from that taught in the European continent.

O presente trabalho constitui a completa tradução em língua portuguesa do tratado italiano Il Transilvano de Girolamo Diruta publicado em Veneza, em dois volumes distintos, no ano de 1593 e 1609. Sob a forma retórica do Diálogo, esta obra versa sobre a maneira correta de tocar o órgão e outros antigos instrumentos de teclado e sobre os mais importantes assuntos da música italiana do século XVI. Objeto de interesse de músicos e cortesãos, Il Transilvano é ao mesmo tempo tratado de música dedicado ao ensino da arte do teclado aos nobres e também importante documento da escola tecladística veneziana, especialmente das preceptivas técnicas de Claudio Merulo, e da tradição polifônica de A. Willaert e G. Zarlino. Rico em exemplos da didática musical antiga, \"O Transilvano\" registra a formação do antigo músico e apresenta diversas peças do repertório quinhentista abordadas segundo as regras daquele período. A presente tradução é acompanhada de uma introdução sobre as suas tópicas fundamentais e pretende favorecer os estudiosos da música interessados naquela antiga. / This work constitutes the complete English translation of the Italian treatise \"Il Transilvano\" from Girolamo Diruta, published in Venice in two separate volumes, in 1593 and 1609. Rhetorically written in the form of the Dialogue, this historical work focuses on the true way to play the organ and others early Keyboard\'s instruments and on the most important issues of Italian music in the sixteenth century. Object of interest to musicians and courtiers, \"Il Transilvano\" is both Music Treatise dedicated to the art of the keyboard for the nobles but, also, important document of the Venetian music tradition, especially the precepts of Claudio Merulo, and the counterpoint from A. Willaert and G. Zarlino. Rich in examples of ancient musical didactic, The Transylvanian describes the formation of the old musician and has several of the sixteenth music\'s repertory analyzed under the rules of that period. This translation is accompanied by an introduction to their fundamental topics and aims to be useful for music scholars interested in early music.