This thesis details the development and calibration of a model created by coupling a land surface simulation model named CLASS with a hydrologic model named WATFLOOD. The resulting model, known as WatCLASS, is able to serve as a lower boundary for an atmospheric model. In addition, WatCLASS can act independently of an atmospheric model to simulate fluxes of energy and moisture from the land surface including streamflow. These flux outputs are generated based on conservation equations for both heat and moisture ensuring result continuity. WatCLASS has been tested over both the data rich BOREAS domains at fine scales and the large but data poor domain of the Mackenzie River at coarse scale. The results, while encouraging, point to errors in the model physics related primarily to soil moisture transport in partially frozen soils and permafrost. Now that a fully coupled model has been developed, there is a need for continued research by refining model processes and test WatCLASS's robustness using new datasets that are beginning to emerge. Hydrologic models provide a mechanism for the improvement of atmospheric simulation though two important mechanisms. First, atmospheric inputs to the land surface, such as rainfall and temperature, are transformed by vegetation and soil systems into outputs of energy and mass. One of these mass outputs, which have been routinely measured with a high degree of accuracy, is streamflow. Through the use of hydrologic simulations, inputs from atmospheric models may be transformed to streamflow to assess reliability of precipitation and temperature. In this situation, hydrologic models act in an analogous way to a large rain gauge whose surface area is that of a watershed. WatCLASS has been shown to be able to fulfill this task by simulating streamflow from atmospheric forcing data over multi-year simulation periods and the large domains necessary to allow integration with limited area atmospheric models. A second, more important, role exists for hydrologic models within atmospheric simulations. The earth's surface acts as a boundary condition for the atmosphere. Besides the output of streamflow, which is not often considered in atmospheric modeling, the earth's surface also outputs fluxes of energy in the form of evaporation, known as latent heat and near surface heating, known as sensible heat. By simulating streamflow and hence soil moisture over the land surface, hydrologic models, when properly enabled with both energy and water balance capabilities, can influence the apportioning of the relative quantities of latent and sensible heat flux that are required by atmospheric models. WatCLASS has shown that by improving streamflow simulations, evaporation amounts are reduced by approximately 70% (1271mm to 740mm) during a three year simulation period in the BOREAS northern old black spruce site (NSA-OBS) as compared to the use of CLASS alone. To create a model that can act both as a lower boundary for the atmosphere and a hydrologic model, two choices are available. This model can be constructed from scratch with all the caveats and problems associated with proving a new model and having it accepted by the atmospheric community. An alternate mechanism, more likely to be successfully implemented, was chosen for the development of WatCLASS. Here, two proven and well tested models, WATFLOOD and CLASS, were coupled in a phased integration strategy that allowed development to proceed on model components independently. The ultimate goal of this implementation strategy, a fully coupled atmospheric - land surface - hydrologic model, was developed for MC2-CLASS-WATFLOOD. Initial testing of this model, over the Saguenay region of Quebec, has yet to show that adding WATFLOOD to CLASS produces significant impacts on atmospheric simulation. It is suspected, that this is due to the short term nature of the weather simulation that is dominated by initial conditions imposed on the atmospheric model during the data assimilation cycle. To model the hydrologic system, using the domain of an atmospheric model, requires that methods be developed to characterize land surface forms that influence hydrologic response. Methods, such as GRU (Grouped Response Unit) developed for WATFLOOD, need to be extended to taken advantage of alternate data forms, such as soil and topography, in a way that allows parameters to be selected <I>a priori</I>. Use of GIS (Geographical Information System) and large data bases to assist in development of these relationships has been started here. Some success in creating DEMs, (Digital Elevation Model) which are able to reproduce watershed areas, was achieved. These methods build on existing software implementations to include lake boundaries information as a topographic data source. Other data needs of hydrologic models will build on relationships between land cover, soil, and topography to assist in establishing grouping of these variables required to determine hydrologic similarity. This final aspect of the research is currently in its infancy but provides a platform from which to explore for future initiatives. Original contributions of this thesis are centered on the addition of a lateral flow generation mechanism within a land surface scheme. This addition has shown a positive impact on flux returns to the atmosphere when compared to measured values and also provide increased realism to the model since measured streamflow is reproduced. These contributions have been encapsulated into a computer model known as WatCLASS, which together with the implementation plan, as presented, should lead to future atmospheric simulation improvements.

The overall purpose of this study was to define the water balance of feedlot pens in a Saskatchewan cattle feeding operation for a one year period. Although the initial intention of the study was focused upon an active feedlot, cattle were removed from the pens in July 2003. Therefore, the year of analysis was conducted on the manured surface of an inactive feedlot. The water balance was also performed on a scraped soil surface, since manure is removed from the pens and spread on agricultural land, leaving the pen surfaces bare for a short period of time each year. <p>During the monitoring period (Sept. 2003 to Aug. 2004), 313 mm of precipitation was received at the feedlot, but only 84 mm of that total was received before June 2004. Winter precipitation was very low (33 mm) and there was no observed runoff from it. Runoff collection weirs in operation for only part of the summer recorded no runoff. The Green-Ampt and USDA SCS runoff models, as well as a snowmelt runoff equation, were used to predict runoff from both the manure pack, as well as the scraped soil surface. Using manure and soil hydraulic parameters determined in the laboratory (from falling head permeameter measurements) and the field (from rainfall simulations), as well as incorporating the greatest 24 hour rainfall amounts and 30 minute intensities experienced at the feedlot, the USDA model found that 29 mm of runoff would occur from the scraped soil surface. Additionally, snowmelt runoff was estimated to be 19 mm for the winter precipitation received. Drainage beneath the 0.6 m soil depth was negligible and the top 0.6 m of soil experienced an increase in moisture of 54 mm. Finally, 211 mm was lost as evaporation. For the manure pack, no runoff was predicted using the Green-Ampt and USDA SCS models and snowmelt runoff equation, which corresponded well to the lack of runoff measured both from the weir and rainfall simulations. Drainage beneath 0.6 m soil depth was negligible. Of the 313 mm of precipitation that fell during the study year, 42 mm was stored within the manure pack and the rest was lost as evaporation (271 mm).

The use of remote sensing technology has made it possible for the non-contact measurement of soil moisture content (SMC). Many remote sensing techniques can be used such as microwave sensors, electromagnetic waves sensors, capacitance, and thermal infrared sensors. Some of those techniques are constrained by their high fabrication cost, operation cost, size, or complexity. In this study, a thermal infrared technique was used to predict soil moisture content with the aid of using weather meteorological variables. <p>The measured variables in the experiment were soil moisture content (%SMC), soil surface temperature (Ts) measured using thermocouples, air temperature (Ta), relative humidity (RH), solar radiation (SR), and wind speed (WS). The experiment was carried out for a total of 12 soil samples of two soil types (clay/sand) and two compaction levels (compacted/non-compacted). After data analysis, calibration models relating soil moisture content (SMC) to differential temperature (Td), relative humidity (RH), solar radiation (SR), and wind speed (WS) were generated using stepwise multiple linear regression of the calibration data set. The performance of the models was evaluated using validation data. Four mathematical models of predicting soil moisture content were generated for each soil type and configuration using the calibration data set. Among the four models, the best model for each soil type and configuration was determined by comparing root mean of squared errors of calibration (RMSEC) and root mean of squared errors of validation (RMSEV) values. Furthermore, a calibration model for the thermal infrared sensor was developed to determine the corrected soil surface temperature as measured by the sensor (Tir) instead of using the thermocouples. The performance of the thermal infrared sensor to predict soil moisture content was then tested for sand compacted and sand non-compacted soils and compared to the predictive performance of the thermocouples. This was achieved by using the measured soil surface temperature by the sensor (Tir), instead of the measured soil surface temperature using the thermocouples to determine the soil-minus-air temperature (Td). The sensor showed comparable prediction performance, relative to thermocouples. <p>Overall, the models developed in this study showed high prediction performance when tested with the validation data set. The best models to predict SMC for compacted clay soil, non-compacted clay soil, and compacted sandy soil were three-variable models containing three predictive variables; Td, RH, and SR. On the other hand, the best model to predict SMC for compacted sandy soil was a two-variable model containing Td, and RH. The results showed that the prediction performance of models for predicting SMC for the sandy soils was superior to those of clay soils.

The forest product industry is keenly interested in extending the normal planting season, as well as in the comparative field performance of standard nursery bare-root seedlings and containerized rooted cuttings. The effect of seasonal planting dates on survival, above and belowground biomass allocation, water relations, gas exchange attributes and foliar carbon isotope composition (&#948;13C) of two stock types of slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) were examined. Slash pine bare-root seedlings (BRS) and containerized rooted cuttings (CRC) were hand planted in September, November, January, March and April in three consecutive planting seasons (2000-2001, 2001-2002 and 2002-2003) on three sites with silt loam topsoils in southwestern Louisiana. First-year mean survival of CRC across all planting dates and sites was consistently high at 96 to 98%, whereas BRS survival was significantly (P < 0.0001) lower at 59 to 81% and highly variable among study sites and dates through three planting seasons. Generally, there was a negative relationship between soil moisture at the time of planting and first-year survival of BRS planted September through March in 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 planting seasons, whereas the opposite was observed only for BRS planted in April 2002 and 2003. Survival of CRC was affected very little by the variation in soil moisture. Containerized rooted cuttings had higher early above and belowground biomass, and height and diameter than did BRS. However, three years after planting the size differences between stock types disappeared or became negligible. Early size differences among trees planted September through March also decreased after three years, although September trees were tallest. Growth of the April-planted trees was poor compared to trees planted in other months. Late-planted April trees had higher &#948;13C values, and higher water-use efficiency in the first growing season compared to earlier planted trees. Differences in &#948;13C values among the planting dates disappeared in the second growing season. Net photosynthesis rates did not differ considerably between stock types or among planting dates in the second and third growing seasons. This study indicates that it is possible to extend the planting season to as early as September and as late as March by using CRC.

To date only very few bistatic measurements (airborne or in controlled laboratories) have been reported. Therefore most of the current remote sensing methods are still focused on monostatic (backscatter) measurements. These methods, based on theoretical, empirical or semi-empirical models, enable the estimation of soil roughness and the soil humidity (dielectric constant). For the bistatic case only theoretical methods have been developed and tested with monostatic data. Hence, there still remains a vital need to gain of experience and knowledge about bistatic methods and data. The main purpose of this thesis is to estimate the soil moisture and the soil roughness by using full polarimetric bistatic measurements. In the experimental part, bistatic X-band measurements, which have been recorded in the Bistatic Measurement Facility (BMF) at the DLR Oberpfaffenhofen, Microwaves and Radar Institute, will be presented. The bistatic measurement sets are composed of soils with different statistical roughness and different moistures controlled by a TDR (Time Domain Reflectivity) system. The BMF has been calibrated using the Isolated Antenna Calibration Technique (IACT). The validation of the calibration was achieved by measuring the reflectivity of fresh water. In the second part, bistatic surface scattering analyses of the calibrated data set were discussed. Then, the specular algorithm was used to estimate the soil moisture of two surface roughnesses (rough and smooth) has been reported. A new technique using the coherent term of the Integral Equation Method (IEM) to estimate the soil roughness was presented. Also, the sensitivity of phase and reflectivity with regard to moisture variation in the specular direction was evaluated. Finally, the first results and validations of bistatic radar polarimetry for the specular case of surface scattering have been introduced. / Aktuell sind nur sehr wenige Messungen mit bistatischem Radar durchgeführt worden, sei es von Flugzeuggetragenen Systemen oder durch spezielle Aufbauten im Labor. Deshalb basieren die meisten der bekannten Methoden zur Fernerkundung mit Radar auf monostatis-chen Messungen der Rückstreuung des Radarsignals. Diese Methoden, die auf theoretischen, empirischen oder halb-empirischen Modellen basieren, ermöglichen die Schätzung der Oberfächenrauhigkeit und die Bodenfeuchtigkeit (Dielektrizitätskonstante). Im bistatischen Fall wurden bisher nur theoretische Modelle entworfen, die mittels monostatischer Messungen getestet wurden. Aus diesem Grund ist es von großer Bedeutung, Erfahrung und Wissen über die physikalischen Effekte in bistatischen Konfigurationen zu sammeln. Das Hauptziel der vorliegenden Dissertation ist es, anhand vollpolarimetrischer, bistatischer Radarmessungen die Oberfächenrauhigkeit und Bodenfeuchtigkeit zu bestimmen. Im experimentellen Teil der Arbeit werden die Ergebnisse bistatischer Messungen präsentiert, die in der Bistatic Measurement Facility (BMF) des DLR Oberpfaffenhofen aufgenommen wurden. Die Datensätze umfassen Messungen von Böden unterschiedlicher statistischer Rauhigkeit und Feuchtigkeit, die mittels eines Time Domain Reflectivity (TDR) Systems bestimmt werden. Zur Kalibration des BMF wurde die Isolated Antenna Calibration Technique (IACT) verwendet und anhand der Messung der Reflektivität von Wasser überprüft. Im zweiten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wird anhand der kalibrierten Daten eine Analyse der Oberflächenstreuung in bistatischen Konfigurationen vorgenommen. Im Anschluss daran wird mittels des Specular Algorithm eine Schätzung der Bodenfeuchte zweier Proben unter- schiedlicher Rauhigkeit (rau und fein) durchgeführt. Ein neues Verfahren zur Schätzung der Oberfächenrauhigkeit, das auf dem kohärenten Term der Integral Equation Method (IEM) basiert, wurde eingeführt. Daneben wird die Empfindlichkeit der Phase sowie der Reflektivität des vorwärtsgestreuten Signals gegenüber Veränderungen der Bodenfeuchtigkeit analysiert. Schließlich werden erste Ergebnisse und Validierungen bistatischer Radarpolarimetrie für den Fall der Vorwärtsstreuung präsentiert.

Hydrological modelling is a powerful tool for hydrologists and engineers involved in the planning and development of integrated approach for the management of water resources. With the recent advent of computational power and the growing availability of spatial data, RS and GIS technologies can augment to a great extent the conventional methods used in rainfall runoff studies; it is possible to accurately describe watershed characteristics in particularly when determining runoff response to rainfall input. The main objective of this study is to apply the potential of spaceborne SAR data for soil moisture retrieval in order to improve the spatial input parameters required for hydrological modelling. For the spatial database creation, high resolution 2 m aerial laser scanning Digital Terrain Model (DTM), soil map, and landuse map were used. Rainfall records were transformed into a runoff through hydrological parameterisation of the watershed and the river network using HEC-HMS software for rainfall runoff simulation. The Soil Conservation Services Curve Number (SCS-CN) and Soil Moisture Accounting (SMA) loss methods were selected to calculate the infiltration losses. In microwave remote sensing, the study of how the microwave interacts with the earth terrain has always been interesting in interpreting the satellite SAR images. In this research soil moisture was derived from two different types of Spaceborne SAR data; TerraSAR-X and ALOS PALSAR (L band). The developed integrated hydrological model was applied to the test site of the Gottleuba Catchment area which covers approximately 400 sqkm, located south of Pirna (Saxony, Germany). To validate the model historical precipitation data of the past ten years were performed. The validated model was further optimized using the extracted soil moisture from SAR data. The simulation results showed a reasonable match between the simulated and the observed hydrographs. Quantitatively the study concluded that based on SAR data, the model could be used as an expeditious tool of soil moisture mapping which required for hydrological modelling.

I denna rapport undersöks hur mängden organiskt kol, TOC (Totalt organiskt kol), varierar i tid och rum i Mälarens avrinningsområde, samt vad det är som styr TOC-halten i Mälaren. Det är viktigt att förstå dynamiken hos TOC i Mälaren och i dess avrinningsområde eftersom ökat TOC i vattnet påverkar vattenkvaliteten och orsakar problem vid beredning av dricksvatten. TOC kan bland annat reagera med klor/UV-ljus och bilda cancerframkallande ämnen. Det kan också öka antal mikrober i vattnets distributionssystem. Arbetet omfattar analys av samband mellan elementen, transportberäkningar per ytenhet av elementen till Mälaren och en modelleringsansats för ett av avrinningsområdena. Rapporten innehåller även en jämförelse mellan de olika vattenföringsmodellerna samt uppmätt vattenföring för analys av eventuella systematiska skillnader mellan dessa som påverkar beräkningen av TOC och de andra elementens transport till Mälaren. Analysen av sambanden mellan variablerna TOC (mg/l), kaliumpermanganat förbrukning (KMnO4, mg/l), absorbans_F (F=filtrerad), järn (mg/l), mangan (mg/l) och SO4_IC (sulfat mätt med hjälp av jonkromatografi, mg/l), visade att vissa av dessa variabler är korrelerade med varandra. TOC mot KMnO4 och TOC mot absorbans_F hade de bästa anpassningarna med respektive R2- värden 0,65 och 0,59 och p-värden &lt;0,001. Årsnederbörd är positivt korrelerad med TOC per ytenhet för Kolbäcksån med R2-värde 0,63 och p-värde &lt;0,01, vilket innebär att sambandet är signifikant. Ökad årsnederbörd leder till ökad tillförsel av TOC till Mälaren. Det finns däremot inget signifikant samband mellan TOC-transport per ytenhet och årsmedeltemperatur. Arealflödesberäkningar tyder på att den största tillförseln av TOC- transport per ytenhet kommer från den nordöstra delen av Mälaren. Fyrisån står för den största tillförseln av TOC. Hydrologiska, kemiska och meteorologiska data inkluderades i modeller för att kunna skatta TOC-halten i Mälaren. Temperatur-, evapotranspirations- och nederbördsdata användes i en hydrologisk modell, HBV- modellen, för att simulera vattenföringen från avrinningsområdet. Sedan användes en processbaserad modell, INCA- C, som drivs av hydrologisk data och beräknade grundvattenbildning och markfuktighet för att simulera tidsmässiga mönster i TOC. Invariablerna till INCA-modellen, markfuktigheten och HER (grundvattenbildning), simulerades med hjälp av HBV- modellen. Dessa modeller tillämpades i Kolbäcksån (ett av Mälarens största avrinningsområden). Modelleringen av Kolbäcksåns TOC- halt resulterade i en modell som anpassade dynamiken mellan 1996 och 2009, men missar den mellan 2009 och juni 2010, med bäst anpassning mellan 2006 och 2008. R2- och NS värden som erhölls för modellen var 0,086 och -0,059. / In this report, it has been investigated how the amount of organic carbon, TOC, varies in time and space in the basin of Mälaren, and what controls the TOC content in the lake. It is important to understand the dynamics of the TOC in the lake and its catchment because increased TOC in the water affects water quality and causes problems in the preparation of drinking water. Particularly, it can react with chlorine / UV- light and form carcinogenic substances. It can also increase the number of microbes in water distribution systems. In addition the work includes analysis of the relation between water chemistry variables, annual fluxes calculations (g/m2/year) of element flows to the lake and a modeling approach to a watershed. Annual fluxes calculations (g/m2/year) indicate that the largest supply of TOC to the lake comes from the northeast of the lake. Fyrisån accounts for the largest input of TOC to the lake. The high TOC-flux is due to a small proportion of open water in the catchment. Hydrological, chemical and meteorological data have been included in models to estimate the TOC content in the Mälaren. Input data processing, especially precipitation data, has been an important part of the work as it affects the whole model. Temperature, evapotranspiration and precipitation data were used in a hydrological model, HBV model, to simulate the flow from the catchment area. Then a process-based model, INCA-C, operated by the hydrological data and soil moisture, has been used to simulate the temporal patterns in TOC. The input variables to INCA-C- model, soil moisture and HER (Hydrological effective rainfall), have been simulated using the HBV- model. Those models were applied in Kolbäcksån, one of the lake's largest catchments. The modeling of Kolbäcksån resulted in a model that captured the dynamics of a few periods of the whole time series. The modeling of Kolbäcksån TOC-concentration resulted in a model that captured the dynamics between 1996 and 2009, but misses it between 2009 and June 2010. R2 and NS values obtained for the model were 0.086 and -0.059, respectively.

<p>Accurate modeling of land-atmosphere interaction would help us understand the persistent weather conditions and further contribute to the skill of seasonal climate prediction. In this study, seasonal variations in radiation and precipitation forcing are included in a stochastic soil water balance model to explore the seasonal evolution of soil moisture probabilistic structure. The theoretical results show soil moisture tends to exhibit bimodal behavior only in summer when there are strong positive feedback from soil moisture to subsequent rainfall. Besides the statistical analysis of soil moisture – rainfall feedback, simplified mixed-layer models, coupled with soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, are also used to study heat flux partitioning, cloud initiation, and strength of moist convection. Approximate analytical solutions to the mixed-layer model are derived by applying Penman-Monteith approach, which help explain the roles of equilibrium evaporation and vapor pressure deficit in controlling the diurnal evolution of boundary layer. Results from mixed-layer model also define four regimes for possible convection in terms of cloud/no-cloud formation and low/high convection intensity. Finally, cloud-topped mixed-layer model is developed to simulate the boundary-layer dynamics after the cloud formation, when the evaporative and radiative cooling other than surface heat flux may significantly contribute to the growth of the boundary layer.</p> / Dissertation

Restoration of Lithuanian independence, land reform, radically changed farming structure and strawberry growing potential has conditioned an increase of modern strawberry plantation. Irrigation is a rather important precondition for the commercial cultivation of fruit and berries in Lithuania. The new farm structure requires new, mainly small-scale irrigation systems. Strawberry water consumption and the soil water dynamics during strawberry growing period stated performing pilot research and additional yield which had been got because of the irrigation influence allows to measure optimal irrigation regime of the strawberry based on research. The aim of the work was to investigate dynamics of strawberry evapotranspiration in the Middle Lithuania and in the course of experiments, with respect to development peculiarities and productivity, to determine optimal irrigation regime for the strawberry grown in loamy soils. In the summary is presented strawberry evapotranspiration results maintaining optimal soil moisture conditions with irrigation; analysis of reference evapotranspiration methods; determination of their interaction degree and evaluation of the possibilities to introduce reference evapotranspiration models in calculation of the evapotranspiration of strawberries; quantitative evaluation of the influence of meteorological factors on the amount of the water consumed by strawberries and analysis of strawberry evapotranspiration calculation methods; evaluation of soil... [to full text]

Knowledge of ecological characteristics of trees, sites and tree growth on different sites is fundamental for silvicultural decision-making and planning. With the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification in place, silvicultural management in British Columbia has been given an ecological foundation; however, relationships between growth and site have not yet been fully investigated. The purpose of this study was to determine how height growth of Douglas-fir within the drier portion of the CWH zone varies with site. We adopted site index (m @ 50 yr bh) as a species-specific measure of forest productivity, recognizing that it indicates height growth performance at a selected point in time. If forest productivity is correlated with ecological measures of site quality, what site factors should be used to quantify the relationships? Because of compensating effects, the numerous site factors can be reduced to four primary (synoptic) factors that directly affect plant establishment and growth: climate (light and temperature), soil moisture, soil nutrients, and soil aeration (not used in this study).