The main aim of this thesis is to provide greater details on the timing of the fluvial river systems formation in the middle and the northern Bohemia. We focused on the Ploučnice River and Vltava River evolution. The river systems are very complex therefore we have used multiple approaches of the research with the disciplines range from geology, sedimentology, geomorphology, geochemistry, over different dating methods such as 10Be and 26Al isochron burial dating, optically stimulated luminescence dating and radiocarbon dating methods. Our results suggests that the terraces are significantly older than previously proposed. The fluvial style of the Ploučnice River system changes from high-energy braided to long-bend meandered river in the upper terrace levels (36 to 29 m above the modern river) and from high- to medium-energy braided river in the middle terrace levels (22-14 m). In the lower terrace levels (13 to 5 m) high-energy braided to long-bend meandered river environments were identified. Terraces were dating at 34 m, 29 m and 14 m above the modern floodplain with cosmogenic radionuclides while the 19 m, 12 m and 6 m above the modern floodplain terraces were dating with OSL. The time span represented by the river terraces remains unclear and varies from Eburonian to Eemian (1.68 to 0.056 Ma)....

Cytogenetic analysis of cells of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is difficult because of their low proliferative activity. To obtain sufficient number of mitoses for performing chromosomal analysis a suitable stimulation of cell division is needed. Using DSP30/IL2 stimulated cultivation 391 CLL samples were investigated in 5 years' period. The cultivation was showed to have high success rate (96%; 375/391) with also high rate of detection of pathological clones by both karyotype and metaphase FISH analyses (in 84% of samples; 329/391). Almost in half of samples (44%; 171/391) other aberrations than recurrent FISH (i.e. 13q14 deletion, trisomy 12, TP53, ATM genes deletions) were found. Also high frequency of translocations (37%; 144/391), complex karyotypes (28%; 111/391) and clonal evolution, which was detected in one third of all samples (34% of samples with presence of more than two clones; 133/391) and like a new event in disease duration even more frequently (in 39% of samples repeatedly investigated after stimulated cultivation; 21/54), was revealed. The presence of translocations, complex karyotypes and clonal evolution was associated with progressive form of disease (P 0,000003, resp. P 0,0002 and P 0,05/P 0,04). In cases of the recurrent deletions the detailed analysis of metaphase...

This paper reports a study that examined the pedagogical knowledge (knowledge and beliefs related to the act of teaching) of two more successful and two less successful adult ESL instructors during planning teaching and post teaching reflection. The verbal reports of their teaching were compared to previous studies (Gatbonton, 2000, 2008; Mullock, 2006) that used stimulated recall to categorize adult ESL instructors' pedagogical thoughts during their instruction. The comparison showed that the previous categories were inadequate to cover the data. Additional codes were added in order to codify all the data after which patterns and themes emerged that overarched the previous categories. The five pattern themes among the four participants included academic focus, comprehension, engagement, language management, and student centered. The two more successful teachers each had one specific pattern theme whose fundamental focus was on student learning. These themes dominated the more successful teachers' pedagogical foci while the other four themes were subservient to that dominant theme. Like the more successful teachers all five pattern themes were present in the planning and reflection of the less successful teachers. However, the protocols of the less successful Adult ESL teachers did not exhibit a central theme or pedagogical focus that orchestrated and directed the movement of their pedagogical thoughts among the remaining pattern themes. This lack of a dominant theme meant that the pedagogical foci of these teachers moved from one theme to another without a consistent orientation toward a central goal. The conflicted or divided nature of the pedagogical thinking of these less successful teachers may contribute to the reduction in the learning of students in their classes.

The discovery of the ferroelectric orthorhombic phase in doped hafnia films has sparked immense research efforts. Presently, a major obstacle for hafnia's use in high-endurance memory applications like nonvolatile random-access memories is its unstable ferroelectric response during field cycling. Different mechanisms are proposed to explain this instability including field-induced phase change, electron trapping, and oxygen vacancy diffusion. However, none of these is able to fully explain the complete behavior and interdependencies of these phenomena. Up to now, no complete root cause for fatigue, wake-up, and imprint effects is presented. In this study, the first evidence for the presence of singly and doubly positively charged oxygen vacancies in hafnia–zirconia films using thermally stimulated currents and impedance spectroscopy is presented. Moreover, it is shown that interaction of these defects with electrons at the interfaces to the electrodes may cause the observed instability of the ferroelectric performance.

?-Conjugated systems have been the focus of study in recent years in order to understand their charge transport and optical properties for use in organic electronic devices, fluorescence bioimaging, sensors, and 3D optical data storage (ODS), among others. As a result, several molecular building blocks have been designed, allowing new frontiers to be realized. While various successful building blocks have been fine-tuned at both the electronic and molecular structure level to provide advanced photophysical and optoelectronic characteristics, the azulene framework has been under-appreciated despite its unique electronic and optical properties. Among several attributes, azulenes are vibrant blue naturally occurring hydrocarbons that exhibit large dipolar character, coupled with stimuli-responsive behavior in acidic environments. Additionally, the non-toxic nature and the accompanying eco-friendly feature of some azulenes, namely guaiazulene, may set the stage to further explore a more "green" route towards photonic and conductive materials. The first part of this dissertation focuses on exploiting guaiazulene as a natural building block for the synthesis of chromophores with varying stimuli-responsiveness. Results described in Chapter 1 show that extending the conjugation of guaiazulene through its seven-membered ring methyl group with aromatic substituents dramatically impacts the optical properties of the guaiazulenium carbocation. Study of these ?–stabilized tropilium ions enabled establishing photophysical structure-property trends for guaiazulene-terminated ?-conjugated analogs under acidic conditions, including absorption, emission, quantum yield, and optical band gap patterns. These results were exploited in the design of a photosensitive polymeric system with potential application in the field of three dimensional (3D) optical data storage (ODS). Chapter 2 describes the use of guaiazulene reactive sites (C-3 and C-4 methyl group) to generate a series of cyclopenta[ef]heptalenes that exhibit strong stimuli-responsive behavior. The approach presents a versatile route that allows for various substrates to be incorporated into the resulting cyclopenta[ef]heptalenes, especially after optimization that led to devising a one-pot reaction toward such tricyclic systems. Examining the UV-vis absorption profiles in neutral and acidic media showed that the extension of conjugation at C(4) of the cyclopenta[ef]heptalene skeleton results in longer absorption maxima and smaller optical energy gaps. Additionally, it was concluded that these systems act as sensitizers of a UV-activated (< 300 nm) photoacid generator (PAG), via intermolecular photoinduced electron transfer (PeT), upon which the PAG undergoes photodecomposition resulting in the generation of acid. In a related study, the guaiazulene methyl group at C-4 was employed to study the linear and nonlinear optical properties of 4-styrylguaiazulenes, having the same ?–donor with varying ?-spacer. It was realized that the conjugation length correlates with the extent of bathochromic shift of the protonated species. On the other hand, a trend of decreasing quantum yield was established for this set of 4-styrylguaiazulenes, which can be explained by the increasingly higher degree of flexibility. The second part of this dissertation presents a comprehensive investigation of the linear photophysical, photochemical, and nonlinear optical properties of diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP)-based derivatives, including two-photon absorption (2PA), femtosecond transient absorption, stimulated emission spectroscopy, and superfluorescence phenomena. The synthetic feasibility, ease of modification, outstanding robustness, and attractive spectroscopic properties of DPPs have motivated their study for fluorescence microscopy applications, concluding that the prepared DPP's are potentially suitable chromophores for high resolution stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy.

Laser induced damage is of interest in studying the transmission of large amounts of optical energy through step-index, large core multimode fibers. Optical fibers often have to be routed around objects when laser light is being transmitted between two locations which require the fiber to bend into a curve. Depending on how tight the bend is, this can result in transmission losses or even catastrophic damage when the energy density of the laser pulse exceeds the damage threshold of silica glass. The purpose of this study is to: Establish a minimum bend radius that would allow high energy (GW/cm2 ) to be transmitted through multimode fiber. Evaluate unique fiber routing configurations including loops, 180 bends, and S-bends. Develop optical modeling simulations backed with experimental data that can serve to predict critical areas for future systems. Waveguide theory predicts that light traveling through a bend will form whispering-gallery modes that propagate through total internal reflection bounces along the inside of the outer edge of the bend. This is critical since in these locations the energy density of the light will increase significantly, raising the potential of laser damage, nonlinear effects, and transmission losses. This loss is especially problematic when two 90° bends going in opposite directions are in close proximity to each other, forming an ‘S-bend’. Light that is grouped along the outer edge going through the first bend will enter the second bend at a sharper angle which causes much high transmission losses and raises the possibility of failure. iv Models using R-Soft BeamProp and Zemax were developed to study transmission losses, investigate light interactions at critical areas, and predict under which conditions laser damage would occur. BeamProp presents a clearer view of the modal distribution of light within the core of the fiber and is used to analyze how a plane wave with a Gaussian intensity distribution excites the fiber modes. Zemax provides a tool to perform non-sequential ray tracing through the fiber cable and stray light analysis within the core and once the light exits the fiber. Intensity distributions of the cross sectional area of the fiber shows the whispering gallery modes forming as the light propagates around bends and disburses as it propagates afterwards. It was discovered using R-Soft that if the separation distance between bends in an S-bend is approximately 3 mm there exists a condition where maximum transmission occurs. For 365 µm diameter core fiber it was calculated that the difference in output power could be as high as 150%. This was initially completely unexpected; however ray tracing using Zemax was able to verify that this distance allows the light to transition so that it enters the 2nd bend at the optimal angle to enter the whispering gallery mode. Experiments were performed that validated the models’ predictions and images were captured clearly showing the spatial distribution shift of the light within the core of the fiber. Experiments were performed to verify light grouping together to form whispering gallery modes as predicted by Zemax. Microscope images were taken as a function of distance from various bends to observe the periodic nature in which the laser light fills up the fiber. Additionally, a configuration was setup to examine stimulated Brillioun scattering and determine the onset of laser damage in the fiber. Fibers were tested as a function of bend radius and number of shots v and recommendations for future systems were made. Lastly, mechanical failure tests were performed to determine the relationship between stress placed on the fiber through bending and fiber lifetime in a static environment. This allowed a minimum safe bend radius to be calculated for a 30 year lifetime that agreed with previous calculated values.

Focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a versatile tool to produce nanostructures through electron-induced decomposition of metal-containing precursor molecules. However, the metal content of the resulting materials is often low. Using different Ag(I) complexes, this study shows that the precursor performance depends critically on the molecular structure. This includes Ag(I) 2,2-dimethylbutanoate, which yields high Ag contents in FEBID, as well as similar aliphatic Ag(I) carboxylates, aromatic Ag(I) benzoate, and the acetylide Ag(I) 3,3-dimethylbutynyl. The compounds were sublimated on inert surfaces and their electron-induced decomposition was monitored by electron-stimulated desorption (ESD) experiments in ultrahigh vacuum and by reflection−absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS). The results reveal that Ag(I) carboxylates with aliphatic side chains are particularly favourable for FEBID. Following electron impact ionization, they fragment by loss of volatile CO2. The remaining alkyl radical converts to a stable and equally volatile alkene. The lower decomposition efficiency of Ag(I) benzoate and Ag(I) 3,3-dimethylbutynyl is explained by calculated average local ionization energies (ALIE) which reveal that ionization from the unsaturated carbon units competes with ionization from the coordinate bond to Ag. This can stabilise the ionized complex with respect to fragmentation. This insight provides guidance with respect to the design of novel FEBID precursors.

The method of using stimulated reductive dechlorination when remediating sites contaminated with chlorinated solvents is not unusual, but not many studies have been done on the overall process outside of a controlled environment. In order to investigate the process, principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least square (PLS) regression was used to identify the most important parameters for the degradation of the chlorinated solvents. The most important parameter for all chlorinated compounds turned out to be oxygen, with levels of degradation products increasing with decreasing levels of dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen was deemed the most important variable to measure during a control program on the site. The degradation dynamics of the process were investigated to examine the behaviour of the chlorinated solvents and their degradation products. The degradation products of the main contaminant TCE were found in all observation points, which indicates an ongoing reductive dechlorination all over the site. A large amount of the mother product, TCE, was found in two observation points, which were believed to be situated close to the sources of the TCE contamination. Over the observation period of 2,5 years the levels of TCE in the source areas decreased significantly to below the remediation goal. However, the levels of TCE increased in another observation point further downstream, with concentrations still increasing at the end of this study. The levels in this point were lower than those measured initially in the source area, but still much higher than the accepted values. Possible reasons for this appearance of TCE could be an isolated sheet of contaminants being pushed into the observation point from a nearby location or transport of the contaminants from the source area in units of higher conductivity such as sand lenses or fractures in the clayey soil. / Att använda stimulerad reduktiv deklorering som metod för att sanera fastigheter förorenade med klorerade lösningsmedel är inte ovanligt, men få studier har undersökt det övergripande saneringsförloppet utanför de kontrollerade förhållanden i en labbmiljö. För att undersöka nedbrytningsprocessen användes principalkomponentsanalys (PCA) och partial least square (PLS) regression i syfte att identifiera de parametrar som hade störst påverkan på nedbrytningen av de klorerade föroreningarna. Den enskilt viktigaste parametern visade sig vara halten löst syre i grundvattnet, då halterna av nedbrytningsprodukter ökade med minskande syrehalt. Därför ses syre som den viktigaste parametern för att följa förloppet och är den parameter som bör mätas i kontrollprogram över nedbrytningsprocessen.   Nedbrytningsdynamiken analyserades under en observationsperiod på 2,5 år för att studera hur de klorerade föroreningarna betedde sig under nedbrytningsförloppet. Nedbrytningsprodukter hittades i provtagningspunkter över hela fastigheten vilket visar på en pågående reduktiv deklorering. En stor mängd av moderprodukten TCE hittades i två punkter som bedömdes vara källor till TCE-spridningen. Under observationsperioden sjönk halterna av TCE i dessa två punkter till under gränsen för åtgärdsmålet, dock ökade koncentrationen av TCE i en annan provpunkt längre nedströms källområdet. Halterna i provpunkten var inte lika höga som de initiala halterna i källområdet, men de var långt högre än det fastställda åtgärdsmålen och ökade fortfarande när undersökningen avslutades. Möjliga förklaringar till varför halterna ökade i denna provpunkt är att ett sjok av TCE från omkringliggande sediment har transporterats till provpunkten, eller att en föroreningstransport har skett från källområdet via områden med högre konduktivitet i till exempel sandlinser eller sprickor.

Hintergrund: Die Herzinsuffizienz ist ein internistisches Krankheitsbild, welches weltweit eines der höchsten Morbiditäten und Mortalitäten aufweist. Trotz etablierter Behandlungsmethoden sterben mehr als die Hälfte der Patienten innerhalb der ersten fünf Jahren nach Diagnosestellung. Zur pharmakologischen Therapie gehören in erster Linie die Betablocker, welche durch kompetitive Hemmung am β- Adrenorezeptor die β- Signalkaskade und somit die sympathische Wirkung am Herzen reduzieren. Gleichzeitig wird durch die Hemmung die Anzahl an β- Adrenorezeptoren erhöht, wodurch die Rezeptorsensitivität insgesamt herabgesetzt wird. Zudem verhindern sie ein Remodeling der Ventrikel, führen zu einer verbesserten myokardialen Energie- und Calciumnutzung, sowie zu einer Reduzierung von kardialen Arrhythmien. Aufgrund ihres Nebenwirkungsspektrums - Hypotonie, Bradykardie und erektile Dysfunktion - tolerieren nur wenige Patienten eine wirksame Dosis des Medikamentes. Fragestellung: Die Phosphodiesterasen stellen einen von mehreren Regulatoren der β-Signalkaskade dar, indem sie deren Second Messenger cAMP hydrolysieren und die Sympathikusaktivierung drosseln. In vorangegangenen Studien im Menschen ist die PDE2 bei einer Herzinsuffizienz hochreguliert. Gleichzeitig bildet die PDE2 eine Verbindung zum NO – sGC – cGMP – Signalweg, da sie als einzige PDE von cGMP allosterisch aktiviert werden kann und infolgedessen vermehrt cAMP hydrolysiert. PDE2 ist ein entscheidendes Enzym im negativen cross talk von der cAMP und cGMP Signalkaskade. Diese Arbeit untersucht die Funktion der PDE2 in der chronischen Herzinsuffizienz. Inwieweit zeigen sich vermehrt Rhythmusstörungen bei einem Mausgenotyp, dessen PDE2 überexprimiert vorliegt, im Gegensatz zum Wildtyp? Wie reagiert die transgene Maus auf adrenergen Stress? Und abschließend, schützt eine überexprimierte PDE2 vor einer Angiotensin II- induzierten kardialen Hypertrophie? Methoden: Nach Genotypisierung der Mäuse mit Hilfe von PCR Testung der Schwanzspitzen konnte mittels transthorakaler Echokardiographie die Morphologie des Herzens (Durchmesser der Ventrikelwand und des Ventrikels selbst) festgestellt und somit die Herzleistung (Ejektionsfraktion, systolisches und diastolisches Volumen) und das Herzgewicht errechnet werden. Zur dauerhaften Ableitung der Herzaktivität wurden den Mäusen (n = 7) pectoral telemetrische Transmitter implantiert, um die Herzfrequenzvariabilität und Arrhythmien (Salven, Extrasystolen, ventrikuläre Tachykardien) abzuleiten. Zur Arrhythmieprovokation wurde den Mäusen (n = 4) Ivabradin und Isoproterenol intraperitoneal verabreicht. Zur Provokation einer Kardiohypertrophie erhielten die Wildtyp (WT, n = 9) und transgenen Mäuse (TG, n = 10) mittels einer im zerviko-thorakalen Rückenbereich implantierten osmotischen Minipumpe für 14 bzw. 28 Tage Angiotensin II. Die Herzparameter zur Messung einer Hypertrophie wurden mittels transthorakaler Echokardiographie alle 7 Tage für maximal 28 Tage erfasst. Zudem wurden die Herzgewichte nach Tötung der Mäuse mittels vorausgehender Isoflurannarkose und anschließendem Genickbruch durch sofortiges Wiegen der Organe erlangt. Verglichen wurden die Ergebnisse der für 14 und der für 28 Tage dem Angiotensin II ausgesetzten Tieren. Post mortem wurden die Herzen der Mäuse nach Trennung der Ventrikel von den Vorhöfen kryokonserviert und das Ventrikelgewebe zur proteinchemischen Analyse mechanisch aufgeschlossen. Der zentrifugierte Überstand wurde für die Proteinbestimmung nach Bradford zur Erlangung der Proteinkonzentration verwendet. Im Anschluss erfolgte zur Größenselektion der Proteine eine Gelelektrophorese mit anschließendem Western Blotting zum Nachweis der Proteine. Zur Auswertung und Vergleichbarkeit der Ergebnisse wurden die Proteinlevel auf das Kardiomyozyten-spezifische Calsequestrin normiert. Ergebnisse: Bei überexprimierter PDE2 bestand eine grundsätzlich niedrigere Herzfrequenz mit erhaltender chronotroper Adaptionsfähigkeit und kompensatorisch erhöhter Kontraktilität. Zudem war bei den TG- Mäuse die Herzfrequenzvariabilität höher als bei den WT. Es zeigte sich kein Anhalt für eine Beeinflussung des HCN-Kanals durch die erhöhte PDE2. Bei vermehrter Stimulation der β-adrenergen Rezeptoren bestand kein signifikanter Unterschied in der Zunahme der Herzfrequenz, jedoch präsentierten sich deutlich weniger ventrikuläre Extrasystolen und Arrhythmien bei den TG- Mäusen als bei den WT- Mäusen. Bei den durch stete Ang. II-Applikation hypertrophierten Herzen stellte sich über die Zeit eine Zunahme der Herzfrequenz bei sowohl den WT- als auch den TG- Mäusen dar, bei gleichzeitig aufrecht erhaltener linksventrikulärer Funktion. Es zeigte sich ebenfalls bei beiden eine noch bestehende β-adrenerge Rezeptorsensibilität, vor allem bezüglich der Ejektionsfraktion. Von PKA- bzw. CaMKII-abhängige Zielproteine wiesen bei beiden Phänotypen keine vermehrte Phosphorylierung auf. Schlussfolgerung: Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass die PDE2 als Cross Link zwischen der cGMP- und der cAMP-Signalkaskade bei Überexpression ähnlich wie ein Betablocker die Herzfrequenz reduziert ohne die Herzleistung zu beinträchtigen. Sie schützte vor Arrhythmien und zeigte bei einer Kardiohypertrophie dennoch eine bestehende β-adrenerge Rezeptorsensibilität. Ein Schutz vor einer kardialen Hypertrophie bei den PDE2- überexprimierten Mäusen konnte in dieser Arbeit nicht nachgewiesen werden. Klinische Daten zeigen eine Hochregulation der PDE2 bei herzinsuffizienten Patienten. Ob eine Überstimulation der PDE2 in vivo und somit eine Zunahme der cAMP- Hydrolyse tatsächlich kardioprotektiv in der terminalen Herzinsuffizienz ist - oder sogar davor - bedarf noch weiterer Forschung.:Inhaltsverzeichnis I Abbildungsverzeichnis III Tabellenverzeichnis V Abkürzungsverzeichnis VI 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Herzinsuffizienz 1 1.1.1 Epidemiologie 1 1.1.2 Ätiologie 2 1.1.3 Pathophysiologie 3 1.2 Behandlung der Herzinsuffizienz 4 1.2.1 Medikamentöse Behandlung 5 1.2.1.1 ACE-Hemmer und AT1-Antagonisten 5 1.2.1.2 Betablocker 5 1.2.1.3 Ivabradin 6 1.3 Wirkungen des vegetativen Nervensystems am Herzen 7 1.3.1 Physiologie der kardialen β-adrenergen Signalkaskade 7 1.3.2 Kompartimentierung in Kardiomyozyten 8 1.4 Physiologie der Phosphodiesterasen 9 1.4.1 Cyclisches Guanosinmonophosphat 9 1.4.2 Die Subtypen der Phosphodiesterasen 10 1.4.3 Die Interaktion von cGMP und cAMP 14 1.4.4 Die PDE2 in der Herzinsuffizienz 16 1.5 Vordaten 17 1.5.1 Überexpression von PDE2 im Mausmodell 17 1.6 Ziele dieser Arbeit 18 2 Material und Methoden 20 2.1 Herkunft und Gewinnung der Wildtyp- und transgenen Mäuse 20 2.1.1 Tierhaltung und Tötung 20 2.1.2 Genotypisierung der Mäuse 20 2.2 Echokardiographie zur Messung der kardiologischen Parameter 21 2.3 Einbau der telemetrischen Transmitter 24 2.4 Aufzeichnung des EKG 25 2.5 Einbau der osmotischen Minipumpen 25 2.6 Herzentnahme bei Mäusen 26 2.7 Proteinchemische Methode 26 2.7.1 Aufschluss des Herzgewebes zur proteinchemischen Analyse 26 2.7.2 Proteinbestimmung nach Bradford 27 2.7.3 SDS-PAGE 28 2.7.4 Transfer der Proteine auf Membranen (Westernblot) 29 2.7.5 Auftragen der Antikörper auf die Membranen 30 2.7.6 Aufnahmen 32 2.8 Statistische Auswertungen 32 3 Ergebnisse 33 3.1 Charakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei PDE2-Überexpression mittels EKG 33 3.1.1 Zirkadiane Messung der Herzfrequenz und Aktivität 33 3.1.2 Herzfrequenzvariabilität 35 3.1.3 Autonome Herzfunktion unter Ivabradin 36 3.1.4 Arrhythmieprovokation mit Isoproterenol 37 3.2 Die Rolle von PDE2 im Angiotensin II- induzierten kardialen Remodeling 41 3.2.1 Grundcharakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei niedriger PDE2- Überexpression mittels Echokardiographie 41 3.2.2 Auswirkung erhöhter PDE2-Spiegel nach chronischer Angiotensin II Applikation 43 3.3 Auswertung der Western Blots der PDE2A3-4808 Mäuse 49 4 Diskussion 54 4.1 Phosphodiesterase 2 reguliert die Herzfrequenz 54 4.2 Phosphodiesterase 2 schützt vor ventrikulären Arrhythmien 55 4.3 Phosphodiesterase 2 im kardialen Remodeling 56 4.4 Limitation der Überexpression durch zelluläre Kompartimentierung 58 4.5 Diskussion der Methodik und Bewertung der Ergebnisse 58 4.6 Ausblick: PDE2 als Downstream Target für Beta-Adrenorezeptor-Blockade? 59 5 Zusammenfassung/ Summary 61 5.1 Zusammenfassung 61 5.2 Summary 63 6 Anhang 66 6.1 Puffer 70 7 Literaturverzeichnis 72 / Background: Congestive heart failure is a medical condition, which has one of the highest morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Despite having established treatments, more than half of the patients die within the five years after diagnosis. First-line pharmacological therapy includes beta-blockers. By competitive inhibition at the β-adrenoreceptor, they reduce the β-signal cascade and thus the sympathetic effect on the heart. Simultaneously, this inhibition increases the number of β-adrenoreceptors, which then reduces the sensitivity of the receptors. Additionally, beta-blockers prevent remodeling of the ventricles, lead to improved myocardial energy and calcium utilization, and reduce the risk of cardiac arrhythmias. Due to its side effects – such as hypotension, bradycardia, and erectile dysfunction – only few patients tolerate an effective dose of the drug. Hypothesis: Phosphodiesterases are one of several regulators of the β- signaling cascade. They hydrolyze their second messenger cAMP and reduce sympathetic activation. Previous studies in humans showed an upregulated PDE2 in heart failure. PDE2 is a special PDE, since it forms a connection between the β adrenergic and the NO – sGC – cGMP signaling pathway. It is the only PDE, which is activated by cGMP allosterically. As a result, PDE2 increasingly hydrolyzes cAMP. Therefore, PDE2 is a key enzyme in the negative cross talk of the cAMP and cGMP signaling cascade. This thesis investigates the function of PDE2 in chronic heart failure. Are there increased cardiac arrhythmias in mice, which have an overexpressed PDE2, in comparison to wild type mice? How do these mice react to adrenergic stress? And finally, does an overexpressed PDE2 protect against an Angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy? Methods: After genotyping the mice’s tail tips with the help of PCR tests, the morphology of the heart (diameter of the ventricular wall and the ventricle itself) could be determined with the help of transthoracic echocardiography. With this data, the cardiac output (ejection fraction, systolic and diastolic volume) and the heart weight were calculated. To record cardiac activity permanently, telemetric transmitters were implanted pectoral in the mice (n = 7), in order to gain heart rate variability and arrhythmia data (salvos, extrasystoles, ventricular tachycardias). To provoke the arrhythmia, mice (n = 4) were intraperitoneally administered ivabradine and isoproterenol. To provoke cardiac hypertrophy, the wild type (WT, n = 9) and transgenic mice (TG, n = 10) received angiotensin II using osmotic minipumps, implanted in the cervicothoracic back area for 14 or 28 days. The cardiac parameters for hypertrophy were measured using transthoracic echocardiography every 7 days, recorded for a maximum of 28 days. In addition, each heart was weighted immediately after killing the mice using isoflurane anesthesia and subsequent neck fracture. The results of the animals exposed to angiotensin II for 14 and 28 days were compared. After separating the ventricles from the atria, the hearts of the mice were cryopreserved, and the ventricular tissue was mechanically crushed for protein-chemical analysis. The centrifuged supernatant was used for Bradford protein determination to identify the protein concentration. Following this, a gel electrophoresis and Western blotting took place to detect and to determine the size of the proteins. To evaluate and to compare the results, protein levels were calibrated to the cardiomyocyte specific Calsequestrin. Results: Overexpression of PDE2 resulted in a fundamentally lower heart rate with preserved chronotropic adaptability and compensatory increased contractility. In addition, the TG mice showed a higher heart rate variability than the WT mice. There were no signs of influence on the HCN channel by the increased PDE2. With intensified stimulation of the β-adrenergic receptors, there was no significant difference in the increase in heart rate, but significantly fewer ventricular extrasystoles and arrhythmias in the TG mice than in the WT mice. Over time, the hypertrophic hearts, induced by Angiotensin II, showed an increased heart rate with preserved left ventricular function within both the WT and the TG mice. Nevertheless, both still showed an unspoiled sensitivity of the β-receptors, especially in regard of the ejection fraction. Both PKA- or CaMKII-dependent target proteins did not show an increased phosphorylation in neither of the phenotypes. Conclusion: As a summary, this thesis demonstrates that an overexpression of PDE2 as a cross link between the cGMP and cAMP signaling cascade reduces the heart rate similar to a beta blocker, without affecting the cardiac output. PDE2 prevented arrhythmias and still showed existing β-adrenergic receptor sensitivity in cardiac hypertrophy. This thesis could not show a protection against cardiac hypertrophy within the transgenic mice. Clinical data show upregulation of PDE2 in heart failure patients. Whether overstimulation of PDE2 in vivo and a consecutive increase in cAMP hydrolysis is actually cardioprotective in end-stage heart failure - or even before - requires further research.:Inhaltsverzeichnis I Abbildungsverzeichnis III Tabellenverzeichnis V Abkürzungsverzeichnis VI 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Herzinsuffizienz 1 1.1.1 Epidemiologie 1 1.1.2 Ätiologie 2 1.1.3 Pathophysiologie 3 1.2 Behandlung der Herzinsuffizienz 4 1.2.1 Medikamentöse Behandlung 5 1.2.1.1 ACE-Hemmer und AT1-Antagonisten 5 1.2.1.2 Betablocker 5 1.2.1.3 Ivabradin 6 1.3 Wirkungen des vegetativen Nervensystems am Herzen 7 1.3.1 Physiologie der kardialen β-adrenergen Signalkaskade 7 1.3.2 Kompartimentierung in Kardiomyozyten 8 1.4 Physiologie der Phosphodiesterasen 9 1.4.1 Cyclisches Guanosinmonophosphat 9 1.4.2 Die Subtypen der Phosphodiesterasen 10 1.4.3 Die Interaktion von cGMP und cAMP 14 1.4.4 Die PDE2 in der Herzinsuffizienz 16 1.5 Vordaten 17 1.5.1 Überexpression von PDE2 im Mausmodell 17 1.6 Ziele dieser Arbeit 18 2 Material und Methoden 20 2.1 Herkunft und Gewinnung der Wildtyp- und transgenen Mäuse 20 2.1.1 Tierhaltung und Tötung 20 2.1.2 Genotypisierung der Mäuse 20 2.2 Echokardiographie zur Messung der kardiologischen Parameter 21 2.3 Einbau der telemetrischen Transmitter 24 2.4 Aufzeichnung des EKG 25 2.5 Einbau der osmotischen Minipumpen 25 2.6 Herzentnahme bei Mäusen 26 2.7 Proteinchemische Methode 26 2.7.1 Aufschluss des Herzgewebes zur proteinchemischen Analyse 26 2.7.2 Proteinbestimmung nach Bradford 27 2.7.3 SDS-PAGE 28 2.7.4 Transfer der Proteine auf Membranen (Westernblot) 29 2.7.5 Auftragen der Antikörper auf die Membranen 30 2.7.6 Aufnahmen 32 2.8 Statistische Auswertungen 32 3 Ergebnisse 33 3.1 Charakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei PDE2-Überexpression mittels EKG 33 3.1.1 Zirkadiane Messung der Herzfrequenz und Aktivität 33 3.1.2 Herzfrequenzvariabilität 35 3.1.3 Autonome Herzfunktion unter Ivabradin 36 3.1.4 Arrhythmieprovokation mit Isoproterenol 37 3.2 Die Rolle von PDE2 im Angiotensin II- induzierten kardialen Remodeling 41 3.2.1 Grundcharakterisierung der Herzfunktion bei niedriger PDE2- Überexpression mittels Echokardiographie 41 3.2.2 Auswirkung erhöhter PDE2-Spiegel nach chronischer Angiotensin II Applikation 43 3.3 Auswertung der Western Blots der PDE2A3-4808 Mäuse 49 4 Diskussion 54 4.1 Phosphodiesterase 2 reguliert die Herzfrequenz 54 4.2 Phosphodiesterase 2 schützt vor ventrikulären Arrhythmien 55 4.3 Phosphodiesterase 2 im kardialen Remodeling 56 4.4 Limitation der Überexpression durch zelluläre Kompartimentierung 58 4.5 Diskussion der Methodik und Bewertung der Ergebnisse 58 4.6 Ausblick: PDE2 als Downstream Target für Beta-Adrenorezeptor-Blockade? 59 5 Zusammenfassung/ Summary 61 5.1 Zusammenfassung 61 5.2 Summary 63 6 Anhang 66 6.1 Puffer 70 7 Literaturverzeichnis 72

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