Energy storage systems will likely be needed for future shipboard power systems that supply loads with high power variability such as pulsed power loads. The power generation in shipboard power systems may not be sufficient to satisfy the energy demands of the pulsed power load systems operating in conjunction with other ship service loads. Two fundamental items in evaluating the requirements of an energy storage system are the energy storage capacity and the ratings of the power conversion equipment that interfaces the energy device to the power system. The supply current of pulsed power load systems is aperiodic and cannot be described in terms of active power. Also, the RMS value and thus apparent power are only defined for periodic quantities. Therefore traditional methods of rating power equipment cannot be used. This thesis describes an approach to determine the ratings of an energy storage interface and the energy storage capacity of an energy storage device as a function of load and supply parameters. The results obtained using the proposed approach are validated with the results obtained from the simulation model of the generator supplying a pulsed power load in conjunction with an energy storage system. The energy storage system requirements for various pulsed power load profiles are obtained using the proposed approach. The method used for determining the ratings of an energy storage system utilizes an orthogonal decomposition of pulsed power load system supply current evaluated within a sliding window. The signals obtained from the decomposition are also useful in generating the control reference signals for the energy storage interface. Although the approach and methods are focused on a particular structure of the pulsed power load system, they may be generalized for use in any type of configuration of a pulsed power load system.

No description available.

Pumped hydro energy storages commonly plan their operations on short-term forecasts of the upcoming electricity prices, meaning that errors in these forecasts would entail suboptimal operations of the energy storage. Despite the high investment costs of pumped hydro energy storages, few studies take a holistic approach to the uncertainties involved in such investment decisions. The aim of this study is to investigate how forecast errors in electricity prices affect the chosen size configuration in investment decisions for pumped hydro energy storages. Moreover, sizing decisions are made in the long-term and involve long-term uncertainties in electricity prices. A robust decision-making framework including long-term electricity price scenarios is therefore used to evaluate the effects of including forecast errors in the sizing decision. By simulating the day-to-day operation of the energy storage with short-term forecasts, the effects of including the errors are compared to using perfect information. Using this approach, the most robust capacity is shown to increase by 25 MW, from 2 375 MW to 2 400 MW, when including forecast errors instead of assuming perfect information in the simulations. This indicates that the deviations in short-term forecasts require the pumped hydro energy storage operator to be more flexible in their operations, thus requiring a higher capacity. In addition, the profitability of the energy storage decreased significantly when including forecast errors in the simulations, showing the importance of taking the short-term forecast errors into account in sizing and investment decisions of pumped hydro energy storage. / Driften av pumpkraftverk optimeras med hjälp av kortsiktiga prognoser av elpriser, vilket innebär att fel i dessa prognoser leder till suboptimal drift. Trots att investeringar i pumpkraftverk är kostsamma, har få studier ett holistisk synsätt kring osäkerheter i investeringsbeslutet. Målet med denna studie är att undersöka hur kortsiktiga prognosfel i elpriser påverkar den optimala dimensionering av pumpkraftverk. Investeringsbeslut i pumpkraftverk är långsiktiga och kräver estimat av framtida elpriser, vars karakteristik är osäker. Ett ramverk som bygger på robust beslutstagande, med scenarier över framtida elpriser, används därför för att bedöma effekten av att inkludera kortsiktiga prognosfel i investeringsbeslutet. Genom att simulera den dagliga driften av energilager, undersöks effekten av att inkludera prognosfel jämfört med perfekt information. Med detta tillvägagångsätt ökade den mest robusta kapaciteten med 25 MW, från 2 375 MW till 2 400 MW, när prognosfel inkluderades. Detta visar på att fel i kortsiktiga prognoser kräver pumpkraftverket av vara mer flexibelt, vilket ges av höjdkapacitet. Lönsamheten minskade också signifikant när prognosfel inkluderades, vilket visar på vikten av att ta hänsyn till kortsiktiga prognosfel i beslut kring dimensionering och investering av pumpkraftverk.

Due to the growing population and climate change, the world will see an increase in demand for food, freshwater and renewable energy supply. Agrivoltaics has the possibility to address all these problems, by producing food and renewable energy but also by reducing water usage in agriculture. This thesis aims to study if agrivoltaics including storage has the potential to enable sustainable greenhouses in Stockholm, Sweden by trying to create a near net zero energy consumption for greenhouses with Agrivoltaics (AV) implemented. Furthermore a techno-economic assessment will be made for the AV-systems where Key Performance Indicator (KPI)’s are compared to economic parameters. The selected KPI’s were a near net zero energy consumption and irradiance underneath the Photovoltaics (PV) technology. The selected PV-technology was standard PV-modules, Semi-Transparent Module (STM) and Organic Solar Cell (OSC) PV. These technologies were paired with li-ion batteries between 0-100 kWh and simulated in the software System Advisor Model (SAM) over a 25 year period. The AV system was applied to two load profiles, one for indoor plants and one for tomatoes. The economic parameters calculated was Net Present Value (NPV), Net Capital Cost (NCC), and Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCOE).  The results showed that the system is efficient in summertime where the PV reached maximum capacity in summer and the battery works as a complement. In wintertime, the AV-system is not very efficient and most of the electricity comes from the grid. It was not possible to create a near net zero energy consumption including storage in Stockholm Sweden. The irradiance beneath the panels were at a maximum for OSC, it was slightly reduced for the STM, and below 50% for the standard PV-module, depending on the size of the AV-system. Depending on the shade tolerance of the plant, the PV-technology should be selected.

Denna rapport undersöker implementeringen av batterienergilagringssystem (BESS) som en strategisk åtgärd för att hantera de återkommande instabiliteterna i elnätet i Ekerö kommun. Den lokala elkraftsinfrastrukturen drabbas ofta av frekventa och långvariga avbrott, huvudsakligen på grund av sitt beroende av sårbara luftledningar. Integrationen av BESS erbjuder en dubbel fördel: förbättrad nätstabilitet och tillhandahållande av nödvändiga stödtjänster under perioder med hög efterfrågan. Studien inleds med en analys av de nuvarande förhållandena i Ekerös elnät, där de ekonomiska och operativa utmaningarna med den befintliga infrastrukturen belyses. Luftledningarna är särskilt utsatta för miljöpåfrestningar, vilket resulterar i betydande tjänsteavbrott som påverkar både hushåll och kommersiella konsumenter. De ekonomiska konsekvenserna är betydligt viktiga, inte bara på grund av de direkta kostnaderna för reparationer, utan också på grund av de ersättningar som krävs enligt regulatoriska standarder vid tjänstefel. Som en lösning på dessa utmaningar föreslås en strategisk placering av BESS-enheter i kommunen. Dessa system kan lagra överskottsenergi som genereras under perioder med låg efterfrågan, såsom nattetid eller under perioder med låg belastning, och frigöra den under perioder med hög efterfrågan eller när nätet inte kan möta belastningskraven. Denna kapacitet bidrar inte bara till reservkraft och stabilisering av elnätet, utan säkerställer även en mer effektiv användning av genererad energi, vilket minskar spill och potentiellt sänker elkostnaderna för kommunen. För att besvara frågeställningarna kring den optimala kapaciteten och placeringen av BESS har HOMER Pro använts. HOMER Pro är en mjukvara för optimering av mikronät. Med HOMER Pro har olika scenarier simulerats för att hitta den mest effektiva lösningen baserat på Ekerös specifika energibehov och nätförhållanden. Simuleringarna har resulterat i en rekommendation om att implementera en total kapacitet av cirka 52 MWh batterilagring vid samtliga nätstationer för att tillgodose kommunens energibehov under avbrott och hög belastning. Vidare beskriver rapporten de tekniska specifikationerna och de operativa mekanismerna för BESS, inklusive de batterityper som övervägs (t.ex. litiumjon, bly-syra), deras förväntade livslängd, kapacitet och effektivitet. Den undersöker också potentiella platser för installation, bedömer deras inverkan på den övergripande nätstabiliteten och de logistiska övervägandena vid distribution och underhåll av dessa system. Slutligen förespråkar rapporten antagandet av BESS i Ekerö som ett kritiskt steg mot en mer motståndskraftig och ekonomiskt hållbar energiinfrastruktur. Genom att minska effekterna av strömavbrott och optimera användningen av elektrisk energi kan BESS avsevärt förbättra servicenivån för Ekerös invånare och företag, och sätta en standard för andra kommuner med liknande utmaningar. / This report investigates the implementation of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) as a strategic measure to address the recurring electrical grid instabilities in the municipality of Ekerö. The local power infrastructure frequently experiences outages due to its reliance on vulnerable overhead power lines. The integration of BESS offers dual benefits: improved grid stability and the provision of essential support services during periods of high demand. The study begins with an analysis of the current conditions of the electrical grid of Ekerö, highlighting the economic and operational challenges posed by the existing infrastructure. Overhead lines are particularly susceptible to weather conditions, which lead to significant service interruptions that impact both residential and commercial consumers. The economic implications are substantial, not only due to direct repair costs but also due to compensations required by regulatory standards for service failures. In response to these challenges, the report proposes the strategic placement of BESS units throughout the municipality. These systems can store excess energy generated during periods of low demand, such as nighttime or off-peak hours, and release it during periods of high demand or when the grid cannot meet the load requirements. This capability not only stabilizes the grid but also ensures more efficient use of generated power, reducing wastage and potentially lowering electricity costs for the municipality. To address questions regarding the optimal capacity and placement of BESS, the report utilizes HOMER Pro software for microgrid optimization. Various scenarios were simulated using HOMER Pro to determine the most effective solution based on Ekerö’s specific energy needs and grid conditions. The simulations resulted in a recommendation to implement a total capacity of approximately 52 MWh of battery storage across all substations to meet the municipality’s energy needs during outages and periods of high demand. Furthermore, the report details the technical specifications and operational mechanisms of BESS, including the types of batteries considered (e.g., lithium-ion, lead-acid), their expected lifespan, capacity, and efficiency levels. It also examines potential installation sites, assessing their impact on overall grid stability and the logistical considerations involved in deploying and maintaining these systems. In conclusion, the report advocates for the adoption of BESS in Ekerö as a critical step towards a more resilient and economically sustainable energy framework. By mitigating the impact of power outages and optimizing the use of electrical energy, BESS can significantly enhance the quality of service provided to Ekerö’s residents and businesses, setting a precedent for other municipalities facing similar challenges.

[pt] Nos últimos anos tem havido uma grande modificação da matriz elétrica brasileira, como se pode comprovar ao avaliar os recentes Planos de Expansão de Energia – PDE elaborados pela EPE. Houve um grande investimento em usinas eólicas e fotovoltaicas e uma redução no número de hidroelétricas construídas e planejadas. Além disso, as recentes crises hidrológicas podem sinalizar que a alteração climática, associada a intensificação dos ciclos naturais de bloqueios atmosféricos (ENOS), pode reduzir a geração hidráulica. Com maiores investimentos em usinas eólicas e solares (fontes não controláveis) em larga escala, será necessário dispor de formas para garantir o atendimento à demanda. Essa garantia poderá se dar por meio de mais geração termoelétrica a combustível fóssil, que pode ser reduzida com a implantação de Sistemas de Armazenamento de Energia (SAEs). Assim, a variabilidade de produção de energia das fontes intermitentes precisa ser coberta com recursos que aumentem a flexibilidade operativa. E dessa forma, o interesse maior da pesquisa visou utilizar métodos de análise multicritério de apoio à decisão com base na avaliação do desempenho dos SAEs considerando diversos atributos técnicos, econômicos e socioambientais para selecionar aqueles mais adequados para o suporte de grade na transmissão e distribuição e de gerenciamento de energia elétrica (num sistema hidrotérmico que vai ser cada vez mais complexo de operar com a entrada de grandes plantas de geração renovável intermitente). Foi selecionado o modelo AHP Fuzzy TOPSIS para essa avaliação por facilitar avaliações subjetivas, como aquelas associadas aos aspectos socioambientais e por sua maior transparência numa discussão multidisciplinar e com diversos interlocutores. O resultado mostrou a eficácia da metodologia adotada para a ordenação e seleção das melhores soluções para armazenamento de energia elétrica. / [en] In recent years there has been a major change in the Brazilian electrical matrix, as can be seen when evaluating the last Energy Expansion Plan (PDE 2002) prepared by EPE. There was a large investment in wind and photovoltaic plants, and a reduction in construction and even in the planning of new hydroelectric plants. Associated with this change, it is important to highlight the observation of climate change effects in its hydrographic basins in the last ten years. A long period of drought was noticed, which started in 2012 and lasted until 2019, being an even more serious event than the worst drought ever recorded in Brazilian basins. This fact resulted in the hiring of emergency thermal plants to meet demand in 2022. This hydrological crisis is already a sign that climate change, associated with the intensification of natural cycles of atmospheric blockages (ENSO), can reduce hydraulic generation. And with greater investments in large-scale in the wind and solar plants, it will be necessary to have more thermoelectric generation using fossil fuel to support the intermittence of these renewables, an operation that can be reduced with the implementation of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs). Resources with operational flexibility that can mitigate the increasing variability of the production of renewable sources in electrical matrices will contribute to balancing the load and regulating the frequency. Thus, ESS can reduce the effects of the irregularity of renewable production and help transmission networks to meet demand at peak consumption hours (EPE, 2018), maintain electrical system frequency stability, and optimize the economic performance of generation systems, avoiding activation of less competitive resources such as fossil fuel thermoelectric plants (EPE, 2018). Several countries have already started to invest in pumped storage hydropower (PSH) to enable the intermittent renewable generation and reduce emissions (China and Europe, IDB, 2021).

This thesis explores what Karlstad Airport needs to go 100% green. Photovoltaics are assumed to be installed at the facility and a Hydrogen Energy Storage System and Battery Energy Storage System will be evaluated to reduce peaks during charging of the planes. Different power peak limits are explored as well as different sized Energy Storage Systems and later evaluated economically. A method to find the cheapest possible system is created with some assumptions and is then used to evaluate throughout the whole dataset. In the end any of the different sized Energy Storage Systems reduces the profitability when considering each systems expected lifecycle.

In this thesis, a simulation model developed in MATLAB® in consideration of system losses based on lithium ion-battery is presented. The purpose of the simulation model is to investigate peak shaving potential in the residential distribution network. In other word to determine an optimal threshold limit and battery capacity depending on if the battery system is placed at the transformer or household level. In the report there were economic calculations executed showing that profitability of investing in a battery system depends on the threshold limit and battery capacity. / I denna rapport presenteras analys av toppeffektreducering med ett simuleringsprogram baserad på litium-jon batteri med hänsyn till systemförlust. Simuleringsmodellen är uppbyggd i MATLAB® där metoder som Coulomb counting implementerades. Syftet med simuleringsprogrammet är att definiera en optimal tröskelgräns samt batterikapacitet på transformator- och hushållsnivån. I rapporten utfördes ekonomiska beräkningar som tyder på att lönsamheten för investering av ett batterisystem beror på tröskelgräns och batterikapacitet.

Considerando condições anormais que o Sistema Elétrico de Potência (SEP) está sujeito, a proteção de seus elementos é um tópico importante. Dentre os equipamentos a serem protegidos, destacam-se os geradores devido a representarem elevado custo de investimento e estarem sujeitos a multas por paradas não programadas. Desta forma, com base em pesquisa bibliográfica, observa-se que não existem estudos abrangentes para a proteção individual de máquinas síncronas aplicadas à geração eólica. Além disso, considerando o contexto das smart grids, a presença de baterias e a possibilidade da operação ilhada podem alterar a dinâmica das situações de falta. Portanto, faz-se necessário um estudo do comportamento dos aerogeradores em situações de falha, sabendo que o esquema de proteção depende do tipo de gerador e da maneira como este está conectado ao SEP. Neste sentido, esta pesquisa propôs incluir uma bateria para operar com um gerador eólico de velocidade variável de forma complementar, suavizando a potência de saída e tornando o sistema de conversão de energia eólica forte o suficiente para operar no modo ilhado. A metodologia estabelece vários tipos de falhas para investigar o comportamento da turbina eólica em tais condições. Para realizar as simulações de falta, foi utilizado um simulador digital de tempo real (RTDS®). Com base nisso, um esquema composto por funções de proteção convencionais foi especificado e testado usando o software MATLAB®. Além disso, simulações em laço fechado foram realizadas com relés comercial e universal. Os resultados obtidos com o esquema proposto são bastante promissores. / Considering abnormal conditions to which the Electric Power System (EPS) may be subjected, the protection of its elements is an important topic. Among the equipments to be protected, the generators are highlighted, because they represent a high investment cost and are subjected to penalties for unscheduled stoppages. Hence, based on literature, it is observed that there are no comprehensive studies and standards for individual protection of Synchronous Generators (SGs) applied to Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS). Furthermore, considering the smart grids context, the presence of batteries and the possibility of island operation may change the dynamic of fault situations. Therefore, it is necessary to study and analyse the behavior of wind turbines in fault situations, knowing that the protection scheme is dependent on the generator type and the way it is connected to the EPS. In order to study these issues, this research proposed to include a battery to operate with a full-variable speed wind generator in a complementary way, smoothing the output power and making the WECS strong enough to operate in the island mode. The methodology establishes several fault types to investigate the wind turbine behavior in such conditions. In order to conduct the fault simulations, a real time digital simulator (RTDS®) was used. Based on this, a scheme composed by conventional protection functions were specified and tested using the MATLAB® software. Furthermore, hardware-in-the-loop simulations were performed with commercial and universal relays. Very good results in favor of the proposed scheme are presented.

Considerando condições anormais que o Sistema Elétrico de Potência (SEP) está sujeito, a proteção de seus elementos é um tópico importante. Dentre os equipamentos a serem protegidos, destacam-se os geradores devido a representarem elevado custo de investimento e estarem sujeitos a multas por paradas não programadas. Desta forma, com base em pesquisa bibliográfica, observa-se que não existem estudos abrangentes para a proteção individual de máquinas síncronas aplicadas à geração eólica. Além disso, considerando o contexto das smart grids, a presença de baterias e a possibilidade da operação ilhada podem alterar a dinâmica das situações de falta. Portanto, faz-se necessário um estudo do comportamento dos aerogeradores em situações de falha, sabendo que o esquema de proteção depende do tipo de gerador e da maneira como este está conectado ao SEP. Neste sentido, esta pesquisa propôs incluir uma bateria para operar com um gerador eólico de velocidade variável de forma complementar, suavizando a potência de saída e tornando o sistema de conversão de energia eólica forte o suficiente para operar no modo ilhado. A metodologia estabelece vários tipos de falhas para investigar o comportamento da turbina eólica em tais condições. Para realizar as simulações de falta, foi utilizado um simulador digital de tempo real (RTDS®). Com base nisso, um esquema composto por funções de proteção convencionais foi especificado e testado usando o software MATLAB®. Além disso, simulações em laço fechado foram realizadas com relés comercial e universal. Os resultados obtidos com o esquema proposto são bastante promissores. / Considering abnormal conditions to which the Electric Power System (EPS) may be subjected, the protection of its elements is an important topic. Among the equipments to be protected, the generators are highlighted, because they represent a high investment cost and are subjected to penalties for unscheduled stoppages. Hence, based on literature, it is observed that there are no comprehensive studies and standards for individual protection of Synchronous Generators (SGs) applied to Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS). Furthermore, considering the smart grids context, the presence of batteries and the possibility of island operation may change the dynamic of fault situations. Therefore, it is necessary to study and analyse the behavior of wind turbines in fault situations, knowing that the protection scheme is dependent on the generator type and the way it is connected to the EPS. In order to study these issues, this research proposed to include a battery to operate with a full-variable speed wind generator in a complementary way, smoothing the output power and making the WECS strong enough to operate in the island mode. The methodology establishes several fault types to investigate the wind turbine behavior in such conditions. In order to conduct the fault simulations, a real time digital simulator (RTDS®) was used. Based on this, a scheme composed by conventional protection functions were specified and tested using the MATLAB® software. Furthermore, hardware-in-the-loop simulations were performed with commercial and universal relays. Very good results in favor of the proposed scheme are presented.