El comercio de bienes y servicios se viene posicionando en Perú mediante el desarrollo de plataformas digitales, situación acentuada desde marzo de 2020 por el impacto de la pandemia de la COVID-19. La creciente posesión de dispositivos electrónicos (teléfonos móviles, tabletas, computadoras personales) por usuarios de diversos niveles socioeconómicos (A, B y C, principalmente) y segmentos etarios, ha contribuido, entre otros, a la mayor compra de bienes y servicios por canales digitales. Uno de estos bienes son los obsequios o regalos personalizados —materia del presente trabajo de investigación— que vienen siendo demandados por un público amplio del Perú, por las características singulares de los mismos, y son elaborados mediante técnicas de sublimación de imágenes y textos. Se busca evocar una emoción o un recuerdo que haga muy especial esta atención. El proyecto empresarial SubliGifts, que es la marca del negocio proyectado, procura facilitar al cliente todo el proceso de elección del arte y la entrega física del regalo para posicionarse en el mercado de regalos personalizados mediante un esmerado servicio de atención al cliente, alta calidad de los productos y con talento humano adiestrado y experimentado en diseño gráfico y comercialización. / Trade in goods and services have been positioning itself in Peru through the development of digital platforms, a situation that has been accentuated since March 2020 by the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The growing possession of electronic devices (mobile phones, tablets, personal computers) by users of several socioeconomic levels (A, B, C, mainly) and age segments have contributed among others to the greater purchase of goods and services through digital channels. One of these goods are gifts or personalized gifts —the subject of this research work—. This has been demanded by a wide public in Peru due to their unique characteristics and these are made by means of image and text sublimation techniques. It seeks to call an emotion or a memory that makes this attention very special. The SubliGifts business Project which is the brand of the projected business seeks to facilitate the customer the entire process of choosing the art and the physical delivery of the gift, position itself in the personalized gifts market through careful customer service, high quality of products and human talent trained and experienced in graphic design and marketing. / Trabajo de investigación

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Les glaciers tropicaux sont des indicateurs climatiques très sensibles. Pour relier les fluctuations de leur bilan de masse aux changements climatiques, nous avons réalisé un bilan d'énergie à la surface du Glacier Zongo (16°S), en Bolivie, entre mars 96 et août 98. Cette thèse présente, d'une part les méthodes employées pour obtenir le cycle annuel du bilan d'énergie ponctuel, et d'autre part l'intérêt de cette étude pour la compréhension du fonctionnement du glacier et sa relation avec la climatologie locale. Dans la première partie, nous nous attachons à décrire les conditions climatiques régnant sur ce glacier, à partir des enregistrements des stations météorologiques installées sur le Glacier Zongo. Les glaciers tropicaux sont soumis à des températures et des radiations solaires incidentes peu variables au cours de l'année, alors que le débit du torrent émissaire est très saisonnier. Pour comprendre quels sont les flux d'énergie responsables de la saisonnalité de la fusion en surface du glacier, nous avons dressé le bilan d'énergie en un point du glacier, dans la zone d'ablation, à 5150 m d'altitude. Ce bilan d'énergie traduit un métabolisme propre aux glaciers tropicaux. L'albédo est le paramètre essentiel qui contrôle la quantité d'énergie disponible pour la fusion en surface du glacier. La particularité fondamentale de ces glaciers réside en la très forte consommation d'énergie sous forme de chaleur latente (ce qui se traduit par une sublimation élevée). En outre, le flux de chaleur latente présente une saisonnalité marquée à l'origine du régime hydrologique du torrent qui s'échappe du glacier. En effet, en saison sèche, la sublimation est maximale et il reste peu d'énergie pour la fusion d'où le faible débit du torrent émissaire. La situation opposée se produit en saison humide. À l'échelle de l'ensemble de la période étudiée, le bilan de masse nettement déficitaire de l'année El Nino 1997-98 s'explique surtout par un déficit de précipitations, responsable d'une chute de l'albédo moyen annuel. Le manteau neigeux réduit lors de la saison d'accumulation 1997-98 a disparu plus vite que celui de l'année précédente, laissant affleurer une surface de glace sale, d'albédo faible, pendant une période plus longue. De plus, la chaleur sensible plus élevée et la sublimation réduite ont aussi contribué à augmenter la fusion superficielle, diminuant ainsi le bilan de masse du glacier.

At present, focus of the SiC crystal growth development is on improving the crystalline quality without polytype inclusions, micropipes and the occurrence of extended defects. The purity of the grown material, as well as intentional doping must be well controlled and the processes understood. High-quality substrates will significantly improve device performance and yield. One of the aims of the thesis is further understanding of polytype inclusion formation as well as impurity control in SiC bulk crystals grown using PVT method also termed seeded sublimation method. Carbonization of the source was identified as a major reason behind the polytype inclusion occurrence during the growth. The aim of this work was further understanding of sublimation growth process of 4H-SiC bulk crystals in vacuum, in absence of an inert gas. For comparison growth in argon atmosphere (at 5 mbar) was performed. The effect of the ambient on the impurity incorporation was studied for different growth temperatures. For better control of the process in vacuum, tantalum as a carbon getter was utilized. The focus of the SiC part of the thesis was put on further understanding of the PVT epitaxy with an emphasis on the high growth rate and purity of grown layers. High resistivity 4H-SiC samples grown by sublimation with high growth rate were studied. The measurements show resistivity values up to high 104 cm. By correlation between the growth conditions and SIMS results, a model was applied in which it is proposed that an isolated carbon vacancy donor-like level is a possible candidate responsible for compensation of the shallow acceptors in p-type 4H-SiC. A relation between cathodoluminescence (CL) and DLTS data is taken into account to support the model. To meet the requirements for high voltage blocking devices such as high voltage Schottky diodes and MOSFETs, 4H-SiC epitaxial layers have to exhibit low doping concentration in order to block reverse voltages up to few keV and at the same time have a low on-state resistance (Ron). High Ron leads to enhanced power consumption in the operation mode of the devices. In growth of thick layers for high voltage blocking devices, the conditions to achieve good on-state characteristics become more challenging due to the low doping and pronounced thicknesses needed, preferably in short growth periods. In case of high-speed epitaxy such as the sublimation, the need to apply higher growth temperature to yield the high growth rate, results in an increased concentration of background impurities in the layers as well as an influence on the intrinsic defects. On-state resistance Ron estimated from current density-voltage characteristics of Schottky diodes on thick sublimation layers exhibits variations from tens of mΩ.cm2 to tens of Ω.cm2 for different doping levels. In order to understand the occurrence of high on-state resistance, Schottky barrier heights were first estimated for both forward and reverse bias with the application of thermionic emission theory and were in agreement with literature reported values. Decrease in mobility with increasing temperature was observed and its dependencies of T–1.3 and T–2.0 for moderately doped and low doped samples, respectively, were estimated. From deep level measurements by Minority Carrier Transient Spectroscopy (MCTS), an influence of shallow boron related levels and D-center on the on-state resistance was observed, being more pronounced in low doped samples. Similar tendency was observed in depth profiling of Ron. This suggests a major role of boron in a compensation mechanism. In the second part of the thesis growth and characterization of GaN is presented. Excellent electron transport properties with high electron saturate drift velocity make GaN an excellent candidate for electronic devices. Especially, AlGaN/GaN based high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) have received an increased attention in last years due to their attractive properties. The presence of strong spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization due to the lattice mismatch between AlGaN and GaN is responsible for high free electrons concentrations present in the vicinity of the interface. Due to the spatial separation of electrons and ionized donors or surface states, 2DEG electron gas formed near the interface of the heterostructure exhibits high sheet carrier density and high mobility of electrons. Al0.23Ga0.77N/GaN based HEMT structures with an AlN exclusion layer on 100 mm semiinsulating 4H-SiC substrates have been grown by hot-wall MOCVD. The electrical properties of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) such as electron mobility, sheet carrier density and sheet resistance were obtained from Hall measurements, capacitance-voltage and contact-less eddy-current techniques. The effect of different scattering mechanisms on the mobility have been taken into account and compared to the experimental data. Hall measurements were performed in the range of 80 to 600 K. Hall electron mobility is equal to 17140 cm2(Vs)-1 at 80 K, 2310 cm2(Vs)-1 at room temperature, and as high as 800 cm2(Vs)-1 at 450 K, while the sheet carrier density is 1.04x1013 cm-2 at room temperature and does not vary very much with temperature. Estimation of different electron scattering mechanisms reveals that at temperatures higher than room temperature, experimental mobility data is mainly limited by optical phonon scattering. At relevant high power device temperature (450 K) there is still an increase of mobility due to the AlN exclusion layer. We have studied the behaviour of Ga-face GaN epilayers after in-situ thermal treatment in different gas mixtures in a hot-wall MOCVD reactor. Influence of N2, N2+NH3 and N2+NH3+H2 ambient on the morphology was investigated in this work. The most stable thermal treatment conditions were obtained in the case of N2+NH3 gas ambients. We have also studied the effect of the increased molar ratio of hydrogen in order to establish proper etching conditions for hot-wall MOCVD growth.

La détermination des propriétés physiques de l'eau pure, notamment la pression de vapeur saturante en fonction de la température, est un enjeu majeur en humidité et identifié comme tel par le Comité Consultatif de Thermométrie (CCT-WG6) sous-groupe Humidité du Comité Technique de Température (TC-T) afin d'améliorer les incertitudes des références nationales en humidité. A cette fin, le LNE-CETIAT et le LNE-Cnam ont développé conjointement un dispositif expérimental permettant d'accéder au couple température / pression de vapeur saturante de l'eau pure. Le principe est basé sur une mesure statique de la pression et de la température dans une cellule d'équilibre associée à un calorimètre quasi-adiabatique. La gamme de température d'équilibre couverte s'étend de 193,15 K à 373,15 K, correspondant à une pression de vapeur saturante allant de 0,06 Pa à 105 Pa.Ce travail présente la description, la réalisation et la caractérisation métrologique de ce nouveau dispositif expérimentale. Les résultats des mesures expérimentales sont comparés avec les travaux théoriques et expérimentaux les plus récents. Le budget d'incertitude finale prend en compte la contribution de la mesure de pression, de la mesure de température et des effets parasites telles que la transpiration thermique et la pression aérostatique. Grace aux différentes solutions mises en œuvre, la contribution des mesures de température dans le bilan d'incertitude globale est réduite. La part prépondérante reste essentiellement associée à la mesure de pression.

Les disques de débris orbitant dans l'environnement des étoiles proches constituent un indicateur très important des propriétés des systèmes planétaires extra-solaires. Depuis l'espace et au sol, les moyens observationnels actuels permettent de déterminer dans divers domaines de longueurs d'ondes les propriétés spatiales de ces disques et celles des grains de poussières circumstellaires. Cette thèse aborde le sujet de la modélisation des disques de débris, à partir de données fournies par de multiples instruments, en premier lieu les télescopes spatiaux Hubble et Herschel, et les interféromètres infrarouges du VLTI, CHARA, et KIN. Mes premiers projets ont pris place dans le cadre de deux programmes-clés de l'Observatoire Spatial Herschel dédiés à l'étude des disques circumstellaires autour des étoiles proches. Au sein du projet GASPS, j'ai obtenu des observations spectro-photométriques de HD 181327, une jeune étoile (12[+8\-4] millions d'années, Ma) de type solaire entourée d'un anneau de débris massif de 90 unités astronomique (UA) de rayon vu aussi en lumière diffusée par le télescope spatial Hubble. La bonne détermination de la géométrie de l'anneau permet de se concentrer sur la modélisation de la distribution spectrale d'énergie, afin de mieux caractériser les propriétés des poussières. J'ai utilisé le code de transfert radiatif GRaTer et démontré que le système héberge une population de planétésimaux glacés, qui pourrait représenter une source d'eau et de volatils susceptible d'être libérée sur des planètes telluriques encore en formation. Je discute quelques résultats additionnels obtenus avec Herschel à propos de disques de débris jeunes, notamment HD 32297, et d'analogues faibles de la Ceinture de Kuiper. Les disques exo-zodiacaux (exozodis), analogues du nuage Zodiacal du Système Solaire, représentent une contrepartie chaude (ou tiède) aux disques de débris, résidant proche de la zone habitable (moins de quelques unités astronomiques) et encore mal connue. Ils sont révélés par leur émission proche et moyen infrarouge et peuvent être étudiés avec la précision et la résolution requises grace à l'interférométrie optique. Dans le cas de l'étoile β Pictoris (12[+8\-4] Ma), dont le disque est vu par la tranche, une fraction significative du disque externe diffuse de la lumière vers le champ de vue des interféromètres ; une composante interne chaude doit tout de même être invoquée pour justifier de l'excès mesuré dans l'infrarouge proche. En m'appuyant sur l'exemple de l'étoile Véga (440 ± 40 Ma), je présente la méthodologie employée et démontre que les exozodis chauds se caractérisent par une abondance de poussières sub-microniques, près de la distance de sublimation de l'étoile. D'un point de vue théorique, le mécanisme de production de ces petits grains non-liés est encore incompris. J'aborde plus en détails le cas du disque exozodiacal à deux composantes (chaude et tiède) de Fomalhaut (440 ± 40 Ma). Je développe une nouvelle méthode de calcul des distances de sublimation et recense les processus variés qui peuvent affecter un grain de poussière afin de fournir un cadre pour l'interprétation : l'exozodi chaud à ~0.1 - 0.2 UA serait la signature indirecte d'une ceinture d'astéroïdes située à ~2 UA à l'activité dynamique particulièrement intense. Finalement, je dresse un bilan des propriétés des disques de débris et de ce qu'ils peuvent nous apprendre quand on les compare au Système Solaire, et propose de futures directions de recherche pour explorer davantage les systèmes planétaires et leur dynamique.

O ser humano continua sendo a espécie diferenciada em meio a uma natureza tão vasta. Seu destaque lhe advém da sua capacidade de abstrair-se do dado imediato, de refletir sobre o mesmo e de lhe conferir significados. Esta sua posição, no entanto, não lhe coloca num lugar privilegiado de centralidade, ou ainda de primazia frente aos outros seres com os quais convive. Impõe-lhe, ao contrário, uma responsabilidade de cuidado sobre todo o cosmos. Por isso, ele está sempre buscando sentidos para o que lhe está em derredor. Entre os inúmeros caminhos trilhados pelo homem nesta busca de significação do mundo, tem sobressaído na contemporaneidade, como um elemento cada vez mais presente e atuante na vida das pessoas, a dimensão religiosa espiritual. Para além de todas as profecias de sua gradativa, mas inexorável, superação/eliminação da história humana e, também, contradizendo as muitas afirmativas feitas a seu respeito pelos vários processos de secularização, ela se encontra em nosso meio com nuances algumas vezes mais intensos e, em outros momentos, menos significativos. No entanto, sempre está presente. Nosso trabalho se apresenta como uma proposta de releitura psicanalítica deste fenômeno, a Religião, que ocupou na construção teórica de Sigmund Freud um lugar bastante significativo, revelando-se como uma realidade que lhe era verdadeiramente inquietante, o que se demonstra pelo número de suas aparições desde os seus primeiros construtos psicanalíticos até às vésperas de sua morte. Ainda que, declarando-se um ateu convicto, S. Freud sempre buscou uma compreensão mais acurada do fenômeno religioso e suas implicações na vida dos sujeitos humanos. Será possível à Religião constituir-se ao ser humano contemporâneo como um caminho sublimatório, em meio a tantos outros, que lhe auxilie na construção de sua subjetividade? O presente estudo foi realizado através de uma pesquisa de cunho bibliográfico dos principais textos de Sigmund Freud referentes à sublimação e ao fenômeno religioso, bem como de estudos realizados por importantes psicanalistas atuais e alguns sociólogos da religião. Nossa pesquisa pretendeu alcançar uma maior compreensão do conceito de sublimação na metapsicologia freudiana tendo em vista sua aplicação na releitura da experiência religiosa nos escritos de Sigmund Freud, superando, desta forma impasses entre as áreas da Psicanálise e da Religião e construindo, ao mesmo tempo, espaços de diálogo e mútuo enriquecimento entre os referidos campos de conhecimento do sujeito humano. / The human being remains as the differentiated species among such a vast nature. Its distinction comes from its ability to abstract itself from the immediate data, to reflect about it and give it meanings. This position, however, does not place him in a privileged place of centrality, or even of primacy over other beings with whom he coexists. It imposes, on the contrary, a responsibility of care over the whole cosmos. Therefore, he is always searching for meanings to what is around him. Among the countless paths that men have gone through during this search for meaning of the world, nowadays there is an element that is getting more and more present and active on the daily lives of people: the religious spiritual dimension. In addition to all the prophecies of its gradual but inexorable overcoming/elimination from human history, and also contradicting the many affirmations made about it by the various processes of secularization, it finds itself in our midst with nuances sometimes more intense and, at other times, less significant. However, it is always present. Our work is presented as a proposal of psychoanalytic re-reading, based on the concept of sublimation, of the religious phenomenon, which occupied very significant place in the theoretical construction of Sigmund S. Freud, revealing itself as a reality that was truly disturbing to him, which is demonstrated by the number of appearances since his first psychoanalytic constructs until the eve of his death. Even declaring himself a "convicted atheist," Freud has always sought a more accurate understanding of the religious phenomenon and its implications in the lives of human subjects. Is it possible for Religion to constitute the contemporary human being as a sublimatory way, among so many others, to assist it in the construction of its subjectivity? The present study was carried out through a bibliographical research of Sigmund Freud's main texts referring to sublimation and religious phenomena, as well as studies carried out by important current psychoanalysts and some sociologists of religion. Our research aimed to reach a greater understanding of the concept of sublimation in Freudian metapsychology in view of its application in re-reading religious experience in Sigmund Freud's writings, thus overcoming impasses between the areas of Psychoanalysis and Religion and, at the same time, Spaces of dialogue and mutual enrichment between the mentioned fields of knowledge of the human subject.

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