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Riparian buffers are promoted for water quality improvement, habitat restoration, and stream bank stabilization. While considerable research has been conducted on the effects of riparian buffers on water quality and aquatic habitat, little is known about the influence of riparian vegetation on stream bank erosion. The overall goal of this research was to evaluate the effects of woody and herbaceous riparian buffers on stream bank erosion. This goal was addressed by measuring the erodibility and critical shear stress of rooted bank soils in situ using a submerged jet test device. Additionally, several soil, vegetation, and stream chemistry factors that could potentially impact the fluvial entrainment of soils were measured. A total of 25 field sites in the Blacksburg, Virginia area were tested. Each field site consisted of a 2nd-4th order stream with a relatively homogeneous vegetated riparian buffer over a 30 m reach. Riparian vegetation ranged from short turfgrass to mature riparian forest. Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine those factors that most influence stream bank erodibility and the relative impact of riparian vegetation. Results of this research indicated woody riparian vegetation reduced the susceptibility of stream bank soils to erosion by fluvial entrainment. Riparian forests had a greater density of larger diameter roots, particularly at the bank toe where the hydraulic stresses are the greatest. These larger roots (diameters > 0.5 mm) provided more resistance to erosion than the very fine roots of herbaceous plants. Due to limitations in the root sampling methodology, these results are primarily applicable to steep banks with little herbaceous vegetation on the bank face, such as those found on the outside of meander bends. In addition to reinforcing the stream banks, riparian vegetation also affected soil moisture and altered the local microclimate. While summer soil desiccation was reduced under deciduous riparian forests, as compared to herbaceous vegetation, winter freeze-thaw cycling was greater. As a result, in silty soils that were susceptible to freeze-thaw cycling, the beneficial effects of root reinforcement by woody vegetation were offset by increased freeze-thaw cycling. Using the study results in an example application, it was shown that converting a predominately herbaceous riparian buffer to a forested buffer could reduce soil erodibility by as much as 39% in soils with low silt contents. Conversely, for a stream composed primarily of silt soils that are prone to freeze-thaw cycling, afforestation could lead to localized increases in soil erodibility of as much as 38%. It should be emphasized that the riparian forests in this study were deciduous; similar results would not be expected under coniferous forests that maintain a dense canopy throughout the year. Additionally, because dense herbaceous vegetation would likely not develop in the outside of meander bends where hydraulic shear stresses are greatest, the reductions in soil erodibility afforded by the herbaceous vegetation would be limited to areas of low shear stress, such as on gently sloping banks along the inside of meander bends. As the first testing of this type, this study provided quantitative information on the effects of vegetation on subaerial processes and stream bank erosion. It also represents the first measurements of the soil erosion parameters, soil erodibility and critical shear stress, for vegetated stream banks. These parameters are crucial for modeling the effects of riparian vegetation for stream restoration design and for water quality simulation modeling. / Ph. D.

Urban runoff continues to impair water quality and there is an increasing need for stormwater management within the limited confines of urban spaces. We propose a system of structural soil and trees that can be incorporated beneath pavement. Structural soil has a high load-bearing capacity yet is engineered to support tree root growth. Stormwater is directed into a structural soil reservoir below the pavement where tree roots can also thrive. Two container experiments evaluated tree function in this system. We examined whether tree roots can grow into compacted subsoils and if root penetration increases soil infiltration rate. Quercus velutina, Acer rubrum, and a no-tree variant were planted in 26.5 L (7 gal) containers and the rootballs surrounded by compacted clay loam. Roots grew into all layers of the compacted soil. Infiltration rate increased by 63% (+/-2%) compared to no-tree containers. A second experiment evaluated water uptake and tree development in fluctuating water tables. Quercus bicolor and Fraxinus pennsylvanica were planted in 94.6 L (25 gal) containers with structural soils (either Stalite or CU® Structural Soil). Trees were subjected to fluctuating water tables simulating infiltration rates of 2, 1, and 0.1 cm/hr for two growing seasons. Trees thrived in all infiltration regimes but roots were shallower in slowly drained treatments. Trees grew best and transpired the highest water volume with moderate infiltration. Even if trees uptake only small volumes of water, increased canopy size compared to conventional plantings (because of greater penetrable soil volume) allows greater rainfall interception thus decreasing runoff. / Master of Science

Climate change affects lake ecosystems in many ways by direct and indirect temperature impacts on hydrophysical structure, hydrology, chemical cycles and on biological interactions. The identification of these climate signals can be complicated and superimposed by other environmental changes, such as land use changes. The aim of this thesis was to seperate temperature effects from effects of management and other environmental influences and to understand the underlying complex processes causing significant changes of ecosystem states. This understanding is important for decisions of lake and reservoir managers to counteract unfavorable consequences of climate change. For the recent study, long-term data of meteorological, hydrophysical and biological variables (phytoplankton, crustacean zooplankton, fish) of the German drinking water reservoir Saidenbach were analysed. Based on this long-term data set, strong indicators for climate induced changes have been identified. In particular, increasing water temperatures since 1975, earlier break up of ice covers and an altered hydrophysical structure could be detected. Thereby, stratification stability increased and turbulent mixing decreased in summer. The water of the reservoir warmed more than the tributaries resulting in a trend to deeper entrainment of the inflows. As further indicators of climate change, an increased annual biomass of phytoplankton and species shifts in the phytoplankton community in spring and summer had been observed. During the spring mass development, the diatom Aulacoseira subarctica became dominant in recent years with warm winters and early ice-out. Its unusual spatial pattern with occurrences in aphotic depths could be explained by easier resuspension compared to other diatoms. By being resuspended first and establishing a high inoculum, A. subarctica profits from an earlier ice-out and earlier full circulation. In spite of a reduced nutrient loading to the epilimnion, in summer, the diatom Fragilaria crotonensis was displaced increasingly by cyanobacteria. This species shift could be explained well by the hydrophysical regime shift. Although, the annual total phytoplankton biomass increased since 1990, the crustacean zooplankton in Saidenbach reservoir did not seem to profit from improved food resources. To the contrary, Daphnia abundances reduced tremendously. We could show that the influcence of fish stocks were underestimated. The stocked silvercarp may have contributed up to 70 % of the total zooplanktivorous fish biomass which had a temperature and density dependent effect. The faster growth of Daphnia at higher temperatures could not compensate for the more actively grazing fish when stock of zooplankitvorous fish was too high. Still, temperature was identified as the most important factor that explained 29 % of the zooplankton phenology, while the second most important predictors were zooplanktivorous fish biomass and nutrient loading, explaining 18 % of the variance. The importance of submerged macrophytes in shallow lakes is well investigated. To increase also the understanding of their impact and their role during climate change on water quality in deep lakes, a model for stratified lakes that includes submerged macrophytes was developed. The simulations showed that macrophyte effects were mainly positive for water quality and macrophytes in deep lakes were able to potentially reduce summer phytoplankton, especially cyanobacteria by 50 % in 11 m deep and still by 15 % in 100 m deep oligotrophic lakes. Nutrient competition with phytoplankton contributed most to this macrophyte effect. In conclusion, for deep lake restoration the re-establishment of submerged macrophytes might be as important as for shallow lakes. The full lake model includes hydrophysical and ecological submodules and thus will allow further comprehensive climate simulations and the evaluation of the effectivity of adaptive strategies and scenarios for deep lakes and reservoirs. / Der Klimawandel beeinflusst Seeökosysteme vielfältig durch direkte und indirekte Temperatureffekte auf die hydrophysikalische Struktur, die Hydrologie, chemische Kreisläufe und biologische Interaktionen. Die Identifikation von Klimasignalen kann durch Landnutzungs- und weitere Umweltveränderungen überlagert werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, Temperatureffekte von Effekten zu unterscheiden, die durch Gewässermanagement oder anderen Umweltveränderungen verursacht werden. Weiterhin sollten komplexe Prozesse verstanden werden, die zu signifikanten Veränderungen in Seeökosystemen führen. Dieses Verständnis ist für Talsperren- und Gewässermanager von besonderer Bedeutung, um ungewünschten Folgen des Klimawandels entgegenwirken zu können. Für die Studie wurden Langzeitdaten für meteorologische, hydrophysikalische und biologische Variablen (Phytoplankton, Crustaceen-Zooplankton, Fischbesatz) der Talsperre Saidenbach ausgewertet. Mehrere Indikatoren für die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels konnten basierend auf diesen Daten identifiziert werden. Diese gehören insbesondere eine Erhöhung der Wassertemperatur seit 1975, zeitigere Eisaufbrüche und eine veränderte Schichtungsstruktur. Dabei wurde im Sommer die Schichtungsstabilität höher und die Intensität der Durchmischung geringer. Das Wasser in der Talsperre erwärmte sich stärker als die Zuflüsse, wodurch diese sich zunehmend tiefer und unterhalb der Thermokline einschichten. Eine zunehmende jährliche Phytoplanktonbiomasse und Artenwechsel innerhalb der Planktongemeinschaft sind weitere Indikatoren für Klimafolgen. Die Kieselalge Aulacoseira subarctica erlangte in Jahren mit warmen Wintern und zeitigen Eisaufbrüchen eine Dominanz während der Frühjahrsentwicklung. Das ungewöhnliche Auftreten dieser Art in aphotischen Tiefen konnte durch eine leichtere Resuspension im Vergleich zu anderen Kieselalgen erklärt werden. Durch zeitige Resuspension gleich nach Eisaufbruch kann A. subarctica ein hohes Inokulum etablieren. Trotz reduzierter Nährstoffzufuhr ins Epilimnion wurde im Sommer die Kieselalge Fragilaria crotonensis vermehrt durch Cyanobakterien verdrängt, was jedoch gut mit den Änderungen der hydrophysikalischen Struktur erklärt werden kann. Obwohl seit 1990 insgesamt mehr Phytoplankton zur Verfügung steht konnte das Crustaceen- Zooplankton in der Talsperre Saidenbach nicht von diesen verbesserten Nahrungsbedingungen profitieren. Die Daphnia-Abundanzen waren seit 1990 stark verringert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Einfluss des Fischbesatzes unterschätzt wurde und die künstlich ins System eingebrachten Silberkarpfen zeitweise bis zu 70% der zooplanktivoren Fischbiomasse ausgemacht haben. Zoo- planktivore Fische haben einen temperatur- und dichteabhängigen Effekt auf das Zooplankton. Das schnellere Populationswachstum von Daphnia kann bei hohem Besatz mit zooplanktivoren Fischen nicht die erhöhte Fraßaktivität der Fische ausgleichen. Dennoch konnte Temperatur als der wichtigste Einflussfaktor auf die Phänologie des Zooplanktons identifiziert werden, gefolgt von zooplanktivorem Fisch und Nährstoffzufuhr. Die Wichtigkeit von submersen Makrophyten in Flachseen ist gut untersucht. Um den Einfluss von Makropyhten auf die Wasserqualität während des Klimawandels auch in tiefen Seen abschätzen zu können, wurde ein komplexes Seemodell entwickelt. Die Simulationen zeigen, dass sich Makrophyten hauptsächlich positiv auf die Wassergüte auswirken und zur Reduktion von Phytoplankton, insbesondere von Cyanobakterien im Sommer, beitragen. In einem 11 m tiefen See betrug die Reduktion 50 %, in 100 m tiefen oligotrophen Seen immer noch 15 %. Die Konkurrenz um Nährstoffe mit dem Phytoplankton war dabei die ursächliche Makrophyten-Plankton-Interaktion. Submerse Makrophyten könnten für die Restaurierung von tiefen Seen folglich genauso wichtig sein, wie für Flachseen. Das komplette Seemodell enthält hydrophysikalische und ökologische Module und ermöglicht damit weitere umfassende Simulationen zur Untersuchung der Auswirkungen des Klimawandels und zur Evaluation von Adaptionsstrategien für Seen und Talsperren.

Η περιοχή μελέτης είναι η λιμνοθάλασσα Καϊάφα.Η μελέτη αυτή βασίστηκε στη συλλογή και ανάλυση γεωφυσικών δεδομένων, στην ανάλυση πυρήνων ιζήματος καθώς και σε μικροβιολογική ανάλυση δειγμάτων νερού της λιμνοθάλασσας. Τέλος ελήφθησαν δείγματα υδρόβιων φυτών από τον πυθμένα της λιμνοθάλασσας για τον έλεγχο των γεωφυσικών δεδομένων. Η γεωφυσική έρευνα-δειγματοληψία και η κοκκομετρική ανάλυση έδειξαν δυο περιοχές στον πυθμένα με διαφορετική κοκκομετρική σύσταση (αμμώδης-ιλυώδης πυθμένας) και διαφορετική βλάστηση (Chara hispida f. corfuensis και Potamogeton pectinatus). Επίσης χαρτογραφήθηκαν περιοχές του πυθμένα όπως, κρατηρόμορφοι σχηματισμοί, ουλές και μέτωπα. Η μικροβιολογική ανάλυση έδειξε περιοχές με έντονη μόλυνση κοπρανώδους προέλευσης καθώς και περιοχές χωρίς σημαντική βακτηριακή επιβάρυνση. Οι περιοχές όπου παρατηρείται η μεγαλύτερη μόλυνση είναι τα λουτρά του Καϊάφα και η περιοχή απέναντι από τις στις τουριστικές εγκαταστάσεις του Ε.Ο.Τ (προβλήτα). Η μικρότερη μόλυνση παρατηρείται στο κέντρο της λιμνοθάλασσας όπου ο αριθμός ολικών βακτηρίων και κολοβακρτηρίων είναι μηδενικός. Τέλος η γεωχημική ανάλυση έδειξε παρόμοιες συγκεντρώσεις βαρέων μετάλλων στα ιζήματα με άλλες παράκτιες περιοχές του ελληνικού χώρου. / The study area is Kaiafas lagoon, West Peloponnese. For this study it was collected and analyzed digital geophysical data (side scan sonar echographs), two cores of sediment and samples of water for microbiological examination. It was also collected samples of marine plants for groundtruthing. The geophysical survey-grain size analysis revealed different grain size composition in the South and North part of the lagoon (sandy-silty seabed correspondingly), which was covered with different marine plants species (Chara hispida –Potamogeton pectinatus. The mapping of seabed showed crater-like formations, scars and fronts. The microbiological analysis showed that the pollution (from fecal bacteria) was restricted in the South part of the lagoon near the pipe of the biological treatment plant. In a lower extend, fecal pollution was tracked in the western part of the lagoon near the touristic settlement of E.O.T. The greater part of the lagoon is unpolluted. Geochemistry analysis showed similar levels of heavy metals in sediment with other coastal areas in Greece.

O objetivo desta Tese foi avaliar o papel da macrófitas submersas em relação à qualidade da água, interações com o fitoplâncton e ciclagem biogeoquímica na Lagoa Mangueira, um grande lago raso subtropical, no sul do Brasil. Para alcançar estes objetivos, este trabalho conta com uma série de abordagens, como: levantamentos de campo, etapas experimentais e uso de modelos ecológicos para avaliar a influência de macrófitas sobre a dinâmica do ecossistema de estudo, cujas águas são intensamente exploradas para suprir a cultura de arroz em sua área de entorno. Ao longo de seus 200km de perímetro litorâneo, a Lagoa apresenta maciços estandes submersos de vegetação. A análise de qualidade da água e estrutura da comunidade fitoplanctônica ao longo de um gradiente de vegetação submersa, partindo da zona litorânea para a zona pelágica (sem vegetação), revelou menor disponilibidade de nutrientes como orto-fosfato (PO4) e menor concentração de clorofila-a (Clo-a), na área com vegetação submersa. Na zona pelágica, os maiores valores de Clo-a foram corroborados pela maior biomassa fitoplanctônica, sendo representada principalmente por espécies de cianobactérias. Tais evidências sugerem o efeito antagônico entre macrófitas e fitoplâncton, como a competição por nutrientes e alelopatia. Em laboratório, estes mecanismos puderam ser comprovados em experimentos de coexistência realizados em microcosmos com 4 espécies de macrófitas nativas e uma cepa da cianobactéria Microcystis aeruginosa. Os testes envolveram níveis distintos de intensidade luminosa e concentração de PO4 visando determinar limiares para a ocorrência de alelopatia. As espécies Cabomba caroliniana e Myriophyllum spicatum se demonstraram potencialmente alelopáticas enquanto que as espécies Ceratophyllum demersum e Egeria densa apresentaram elevada capacidade de absorção de PO4 (±0,35 mg.g-1d-1) reduzindo rapidamente a concentração deste nutriente a valores abaixo de 0,05 mg.L-1. Outra abordadem experimental foi conduzida para parametrizar a cinética da liberação de nutrientes e carbono de 5 espécies de macrófitas durante o processo de decomposição. Com o auxílio de modelos ecológicos, foi simulado o crescimento de macrófitas submersas em lagos subtropicais e temperados. Isto foi realizado visando avaliar a possibilidade de aumento da resilência do estado de dominância por macrófitas em lagos de baixa latidude devido ao crescimento contínuo da vegetação, ao contrário de lagos temperados, onde as plantas morrem sazonalmente em função do inverno rigoroso. Além disso, foram simulados cenários considerando a possibilidade de colapso da vegetação submersa na Lagoa Mangueira em função de intensa tomada da água da Lagoa para irrigação. Com base na modelagem, foi possível estimar limiares de eutrofização para a proliferação do fitoplâncton. Em suma, os resultados comprovaram os mecanismos de retroalimentação positiva de macrófitas submersas sobre a qualidade da água e importância de suas funções ecológicas para o estado trófico e gestão da Lagoa Mangueira. Além disso, este conjunto de informações constitui uma base teórico-prática para o manejo, restauração e conservação de lagos rasos subtropicais e tropicais. / The aim of this Thesis was to evaluate the role of the submerged macrophytes with respect to water quality and, interactions with phytoplankton and nutrient cycling in the large shallow subtropical Lake Mangueira, southern Brazil. To achieve these goals, this work counts with approaches in situ, in laboratory and aplication of ecological modelling to verifify the influence of the submerged vegetation over the dynamics of the ecosystem, whose water is intensively explored to irrigate rice crops around its surrounding area. Over the 200km of the lake littoral perimeter, several submerged macrophyte beds are established. The analysis of water quality and phytoplankton structure along a macrophyte-pelagic gradient revealed lower concentration of orto-phosphate (PO4) and chlorophyll-a (Chlo-a) in the vegetated area. At the pelagic zone, the higher Chlo-a values were corroborated by the higher biomass of phytoplankton, which was mostly composed by cyanobacteria species. Such evidences suggest the antagonistic relantionship between macrophytes and phytoplankton as nutrient competition and allelopathy. Experiments of coexistance, in microcosms, with 4 native submerged macrophytes and a toxic strain of the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa proved the occurrence of these mechanisms. The experiments included different levels of light intensity and orto-phosphate concentration (PO4) in the medium aiming to identify thresholds in which allelopathy is likely to occur. The macrophytes Cabomba caroliniana and Myriophyllum spicatum showed allelopathic potential while the species Ceratophyllum demersum and Egeria densa showed a high capacity for PO4 absorption (±0.35 mg.g-1d-1), being able to reduce this nutrient to lower levels than 0.05 mg.L-1. Another experimental approach was carried out to parameterize the leaching of nutrients and carbon from 5 macrophytes under decaying process. Moreover, ecological modelling was utilized to simulate the growth of submerged macrophytes in subtropical and temperate lakes. This was done aiming to evaluate the possibility of resilience enhancement of the clear water state in lakes of low latitude because the plants can grow continuously, in contrast with temperate lakes, where they die seasonally due to rigorous winter. In addition, simulation of scenarios considering the collapse of the vegetation in Lake Mangueira because of water uptake for rice crops were carried out in oder to provide elements for the ecosystem management. Through this approach, it was possible to forecast possible eutrophication thresholds for phytoplankton blomming. In conclusion, the results proved the the postive feed-back mechanisms exerted by the submerged macrophytes on the water quality and the importance of their ecological functions to the trophic state of Lake Mangueira. In addition, such information serve as theoretical and practical basis for the management, restoration and conservation of subtropical and tropical shallow lakes.

Dans les systèmes lotiques, la végétation aquatique se développe en formant des taches générées par des rétroactions échelle-dépendantes. Les plantes modifient l'environnement physique (i.e. organismes ingénieurs), induisant des rétroactions positives dans les taches et négatives à côté, ce qui conduit à la formation de patrons réguliers. Ces rétroactions échelle-dépendantes ne permettent d'expliquer que l'expansion latérale des taches, mais pas leur développement longitudinal. L'objectif était d'étudier les processus qui induisent des rétroactions pour les plantes et les conséquences pour la dynamique des taches. Des mesures de l'hydrodynamique, des caractéristiques des sédiments et de la morphologie des plantes ont été faites in situ le long de taches de longueur croissante. Les résultats ont démontré qu'une longueur minimale est nécessaire pour induire une réduction de la vitesse du courant et une accumulation de sédiments fins dans les taches. L’ensemble conduit à des changements des concentrations en nutriments dans l'eau interstitielle au delà d’une certaine longueur de tache, consistant en une accumulation d'ammonium et une diminution des nitrates. La hauteur des plantes est liée à la longueur de la tache selon un modèle quadratique, suggérant l’existence d’une rétroaction négative au delà d’une longueur seuil, probablement due à la concentration élevée en ammonium qui peut être toxique pour les plantes. Les longueurs au delà desquelles ont lieu des changements des processus biogéochimiques et des rétroactions négatives sont plus faibles dans l’écosystème avec le niveau de nutriments le plus élevé. Enfin, les modifications de l'habitat induites par les taches dépendent des caractéristiques des plantes et des taches. Ces modifications induites par les plantes ont des effets en cascade sur les processus biogéochimiques et la croissance des plantes, avec des conséquences pour la dynamique des taches et le fonctionnement de l'écosystème / Submerged aquatic vegetation often grows in lotic systems in patches generated by scale-dependent feedbacks. As ecosystem engineers, plants modify the physical environment triggering positive feedbacks within the patch and negative feedbacks alongside the patch, resulting in regular pattern formation. These scale-dependent feedbacks enable to explain only the lateral expansion of patches, but not their longitudinal development. The objective was to study the processes that trigger positive and negative feedbacks for plants along patches and the consequences for patch dynamics. In situ coupled measurements of hydrodynamics, sediment characteristics, and plant morphology were performed along patches of increasing length. The results demonstrated that a minimum patch length was needed to induce in-patch velocity reduction and fine sediment accumulation. As a consequence of these modifications, patch length influenced the nutrient concentrations in interstitial water of the in-patch sediment, this effect being observed only over a certain threshold length. Over this threshold length, the sediment presented an accumulation of ammonium and depletion of nitrates. Plant height was related to patch length by a quadratic relationship, suggesting that negative feedbacks occur over a certain patch length, probably due to the high ammonium concentration that can be toxic for plants in the range measured. The threshold lengths over which patches influence the biogeochemical processes and negative feedbacks occur were reduced in the ecosystem presenting the highest nutrient level. The results also demonstrated that the physical habitat modifications induced by patches depend on the plant traits and patch characteristics. The plant-induced modifications of the physical habitat have cascading effects on the biogeochemical processes and plant growth, which depended on the environmental conditions, with consequences for patch dynamics and ecosystem functioning

O objetivo desta Tese foi avaliar o papel da macrófitas submersas em relação à qualidade da água, interações com o fitoplâncton e ciclagem biogeoquímica na Lagoa Mangueira, um grande lago raso subtropical, no sul do Brasil. Para alcançar estes objetivos, este trabalho conta com uma série de abordagens, como: levantamentos de campo, etapas experimentais e uso de modelos ecológicos para avaliar a influência de macrófitas sobre a dinâmica do ecossistema de estudo, cujas águas são intensamente exploradas para suprir a cultura de arroz em sua área de entorno. Ao longo de seus 200km de perímetro litorâneo, a Lagoa apresenta maciços estandes submersos de vegetação. A análise de qualidade da água e estrutura da comunidade fitoplanctônica ao longo de um gradiente de vegetação submersa, partindo da zona litorânea para a zona pelágica (sem vegetação), revelou menor disponilibidade de nutrientes como orto-fosfato (PO4) e menor concentração de clorofila-a (Clo-a), na área com vegetação submersa. Na zona pelágica, os maiores valores de Clo-a foram corroborados pela maior biomassa fitoplanctônica, sendo representada principalmente por espécies de cianobactérias. Tais evidências sugerem o efeito antagônico entre macrófitas e fitoplâncton, como a competição por nutrientes e alelopatia. Em laboratório, estes mecanismos puderam ser comprovados em experimentos de coexistência realizados em microcosmos com 4 espécies de macrófitas nativas e uma cepa da cianobactéria Microcystis aeruginosa. Os testes envolveram níveis distintos de intensidade luminosa e concentração de PO4 visando determinar limiares para a ocorrência de alelopatia. As espécies Cabomba caroliniana e Myriophyllum spicatum se demonstraram potencialmente alelopáticas enquanto que as espécies Ceratophyllum demersum e Egeria densa apresentaram elevada capacidade de absorção de PO4 (±0,35 mg.g-1d-1) reduzindo rapidamente a concentração deste nutriente a valores abaixo de 0,05 mg.L-1. Outra abordadem experimental foi conduzida para parametrizar a cinética da liberação de nutrientes e carbono de 5 espécies de macrófitas durante o processo de decomposição. Com o auxílio de modelos ecológicos, foi simulado o crescimento de macrófitas submersas em lagos subtropicais e temperados. Isto foi realizado visando avaliar a possibilidade de aumento da resilência do estado de dominância por macrófitas em lagos de baixa latidude devido ao crescimento contínuo da vegetação, ao contrário de lagos temperados, onde as plantas morrem sazonalmente em função do inverno rigoroso. Além disso, foram simulados cenários considerando a possibilidade de colapso da vegetação submersa na Lagoa Mangueira em função de intensa tomada da água da Lagoa para irrigação. Com base na modelagem, foi possível estimar limiares de eutrofização para a proliferação do fitoplâncton. Em suma, os resultados comprovaram os mecanismos de retroalimentação positiva de macrófitas submersas sobre a qualidade da água e importância de suas funções ecológicas para o estado trófico e gestão da Lagoa Mangueira. Além disso, este conjunto de informações constitui uma base teórico-prática para o manejo, restauração e conservação de lagos rasos subtropicais e tropicais. / The aim of this Thesis was to evaluate the role of the submerged macrophytes with respect to water quality and, interactions with phytoplankton and nutrient cycling in the large shallow subtropical Lake Mangueira, southern Brazil. To achieve these goals, this work counts with approaches in situ, in laboratory and aplication of ecological modelling to verifify the influence of the submerged vegetation over the dynamics of the ecosystem, whose water is intensively explored to irrigate rice crops around its surrounding area. Over the 200km of the lake littoral perimeter, several submerged macrophyte beds are established. The analysis of water quality and phytoplankton structure along a macrophyte-pelagic gradient revealed lower concentration of orto-phosphate (PO4) and chlorophyll-a (Chlo-a) in the vegetated area. At the pelagic zone, the higher Chlo-a values were corroborated by the higher biomass of phytoplankton, which was mostly composed by cyanobacteria species. Such evidences suggest the antagonistic relantionship between macrophytes and phytoplankton as nutrient competition and allelopathy. Experiments of coexistance, in microcosms, with 4 native submerged macrophytes and a toxic strain of the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa proved the occurrence of these mechanisms. The experiments included different levels of light intensity and orto-phosphate concentration (PO4) in the medium aiming to identify thresholds in which allelopathy is likely to occur. The macrophytes Cabomba caroliniana and Myriophyllum spicatum showed allelopathic potential while the species Ceratophyllum demersum and Egeria densa showed a high capacity for PO4 absorption (±0.35 mg.g-1d-1), being able to reduce this nutrient to lower levels than 0.05 mg.L-1. Another experimental approach was carried out to parameterize the leaching of nutrients and carbon from 5 macrophytes under decaying process. Moreover, ecological modelling was utilized to simulate the growth of submerged macrophytes in subtropical and temperate lakes. This was done aiming to evaluate the possibility of resilience enhancement of the clear water state in lakes of low latitude because the plants can grow continuously, in contrast with temperate lakes, where they die seasonally due to rigorous winter. In addition, simulation of scenarios considering the collapse of the vegetation in Lake Mangueira because of water uptake for rice crops were carried out in oder to provide elements for the ecosystem management. Through this approach, it was possible to forecast possible eutrophication thresholds for phytoplankton blomming. In conclusion, the results proved the the postive feed-back mechanisms exerted by the submerged macrophytes on the water quality and the importance of their ecological functions to the trophic state of Lake Mangueira. In addition, such information serve as theoretical and practical basis for the management, restoration and conservation of subtropical and tropical shallow lakes.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-17T18:39:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 4514.pdf: 2385637 bytes, checksum: 89b533535415a993d655f83f1387c6f0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-06-27 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The selection of cellulase-producing fungi is one of the possible estrategies for obtaining necessary enzymes to hydrolyze the lignocellulosic material of plant biomass and thereby contribute to the viability of cellulosic ethanol production. The aim of this study was achive a screening of isolated fungi from the Amazon region to assess the production of enzymes related to plant biomass degradation, in order to select a line for production, purification and biochemical, kinetical and and structural biology characterizationof the ß-Galactosidase enzyme. Therefore, this work was undertaken in three stages, first of all it was performed a screening of 40 fungal strains isolated from the Amazon region through the cultivation in solid state fermentation (FES) at 35ºC for 240 hours, using as substrate wheat bran. It was evaluated the production of xylanase, endoglucanase, FPase, pectinase, ß-Glicosidase and total protein, and the fungi that stood out were: P6B2, the best producer of xylanase, P47C3 (Aspergillus niger), the best producer endoglucanase and ß-Glicosidase and P40B3, the best producer of FPase. These three fungi were selected for the second phase of this work for assessment in the production of xylanase, FPase, endoglucanase, ß-Glicosidase and total protein by submerged fermentation (FSm). The fermentation took place for 5 days at 30ºC and 200 rpm with a source of carbon: 1% of wheat bran washed and nutrient medium. The fungi P47C3, which was identified as Aspergillus niger, showed the best production of these enzymes, being selected for the third stage of this project. This last step involved the selection of an enzyme that has not been elucidated its structural biology. Given this fact, we carried out a study of selection of the medium, purification and biochemicalkinetical characterization of ß-Galactosidase. The Aspergillus niger (P47C3) was subjected to submerged for 5 days at 200 rpm at 30ºC. Purification occured in three steps using: ion exchange column SP-Sephadex C-50 and SP TSK-5PW column, and gelfiltration, with the resin Sephacryl S-200. The enzyme ß-Galactosidase showed a molecular weight of 125 kDa, being stable at pH 4,0, with anoptimum temperature of 55ºC. It was evaluated theKmap e Vmáxap of two substrates, PNPG and lactose, being: 2,204 mM-0,285 mM/min and 2,101 mM-0,75mM/min, respectively. The inhibition of hydrolasis of the substrate PNPG by ß-Galactosidase in the presence of galactose inhibitor product showed a Ki value of 5,01 mM. Finally, the ß-Galactosidase was subjected to crystallization conditions, the best conditions occurred in buffer 0,2M Tris- HCl, with the precipitation agent, 12% PEG 4000 at pH 8,6. Therefore, the unpublished protocol for purification of ß-Galactosidase was efficient and it is possible to crystallize this enzyme of isolated fungi from the Amazon region, which showed great potencial for the production of this enzyme and that the future can be used in industrial application and biotechnological innovations. / A seleção de fungos produtores de celulases é uma das possíveis estratégias para a obtenção das enzimas necessárias para hidrolisar o material lignocelulósico da biomassa vegetal e com isso contribuir para a viabilização da produção de etanol celulósico. O objetivo desse trabalho foi realizar um screening dos fungos isolados da região amazônica para a avaliação da produção de enzimas relacionadas à degradação da biomassa vegetal, a fim de selecionar uma linhagem para produção, purificação e caracterização bioquímica, cinética e biologia estrutural da enzima ß-Galactosidase. Dessa forma, esse trabalho foi realizado em três etapas, primeiramente foi realizado um screening de 40 linhagens fúngicas isoladas da região amazônica, através do cultivo em fermentação em estado sólido (FES), a 35°C, por 240 horas, utilizando como substrato o farelo de trigo. Avaliou-se a produção de xilanase, endoglucanase, FPase, pectinase, ßglicosidase e proteínas totais, sendo que os fungos que mais se destacaram foram o: P6B2, melhor produtor de xilanase, P47C3 (Aspergillus niger), melhor produtor de endoglucanase e ß-glicosidase e o P40B3, melhor produtor de FPase. Esses três fungos, foram selecionados para a segunda fase do trabalho para avaliação na produção de xilanase, FPase, endoglucanase, ß-glicosidase e proteínas Totais por fermentação submersa (FSm). A fermentação ocorreu por 5 dias, à 30ºC e 200 rpm tendo como fonte de carbono: 1% de farelo de trigo lavado e meio nutriente. O fungo P47C3, identificado como Aspergillus niger, apresentou melhor produção dessas enzimas, sendo selecionado para a terceira etapa desse projeto. Essa última etapa, envolveu a escolha de uma enzima que não estivesse sua biologia estrutural elucidada. Diante desse fato, realizou-se um estudo de seleção do meio de cultivo, purificação e caracterização bioquimico-cinética da ß-Galactosidase. O fungo Aspergillus niger (P47C3) foi submetido a fermentação submersa, durante 5 dias, à 200 rpm em 30ºC. A purificação ocorreu em três etapas utilizando: colunas de troca iônica SP - Sephadex C-50 e a coluna SP -TSK 5PW; e gel filtração, com a resina Sephacryl S-200. A enzima ß-Galactosidase apresentou uma massa molecular de 125 kDa, sendo estável em pH 4,0, e com temperatura ótima de 55ºC. Avaliou-se a Kmap e Vmáxap de dois substratos, o PNPG e a lactose, sendo: 2,204 mM - 0,285 mM/min e 2,101 mM 0,750 mM/min, respectivamente. A inibição da hidrólise do substrato PNPG pela ß-Galactosidase na presença do produto inibidor galactose apresentou um valor de Ki de 5,01 mM. Por fim, a ß-Galactosidase foi submetida a condições de cristalização, as melhores condições ocorreram em tampão 0,2M Tris-HCl, tendo como agente precipitante, PEG 4000 12% em pH 8,6. Portanto, o protocolo inédito de purificação da ß-Galactosidase foi eficiente, sendo possível cristalizar essa enzima do fungo isolado da região amazônica, o qual apresentou grande potencial para a produção dessa enzima e que futuramente possa ser utilizado em aplicações industriais e inovações biotecnológicas.

O objetivo desta Tese foi avaliar o papel da macrófitas submersas em relação à qualidade da água, interações com o fitoplâncton e ciclagem biogeoquímica na Lagoa Mangueira, um grande lago raso subtropical, no sul do Brasil. Para alcançar estes objetivos, este trabalho conta com uma série de abordagens, como: levantamentos de campo, etapas experimentais e uso de modelos ecológicos para avaliar a influência de macrófitas sobre a dinâmica do ecossistema de estudo, cujas águas são intensamente exploradas para suprir a cultura de arroz em sua área de entorno. Ao longo de seus 200km de perímetro litorâneo, a Lagoa apresenta maciços estandes submersos de vegetação. A análise de qualidade da água e estrutura da comunidade fitoplanctônica ao longo de um gradiente de vegetação submersa, partindo da zona litorânea para a zona pelágica (sem vegetação), revelou menor disponilibidade de nutrientes como orto-fosfato (PO4) e menor concentração de clorofila-a (Clo-a), na área com vegetação submersa. Na zona pelágica, os maiores valores de Clo-a foram corroborados pela maior biomassa fitoplanctônica, sendo representada principalmente por espécies de cianobactérias. Tais evidências sugerem o efeito antagônico entre macrófitas e fitoplâncton, como a competição por nutrientes e alelopatia. Em laboratório, estes mecanismos puderam ser comprovados em experimentos de coexistência realizados em microcosmos com 4 espécies de macrófitas nativas e uma cepa da cianobactéria Microcystis aeruginosa. Os testes envolveram níveis distintos de intensidade luminosa e concentração de PO4 visando determinar limiares para a ocorrência de alelopatia. As espécies Cabomba caroliniana e Myriophyllum spicatum se demonstraram potencialmente alelopáticas enquanto que as espécies Ceratophyllum demersum e Egeria densa apresentaram elevada capacidade de absorção de PO4 (±0,35 mg.g-1d-1) reduzindo rapidamente a concentração deste nutriente a valores abaixo de 0,05 mg.L-1. Outra abordadem experimental foi conduzida para parametrizar a cinética da liberação de nutrientes e carbono de 5 espécies de macrófitas durante o processo de decomposição. Com o auxílio de modelos ecológicos, foi simulado o crescimento de macrófitas submersas em lagos subtropicais e temperados. Isto foi realizado visando avaliar a possibilidade de aumento da resilência do estado de dominância por macrófitas em lagos de baixa latidude devido ao crescimento contínuo da vegetação, ao contrário de lagos temperados, onde as plantas morrem sazonalmente em função do inverno rigoroso. Além disso, foram simulados cenários considerando a possibilidade de colapso da vegetação submersa na Lagoa Mangueira em função de intensa tomada da água da Lagoa para irrigação. Com base na modelagem, foi possível estimar limiares de eutrofização para a proliferação do fitoplâncton. Em suma, os resultados comprovaram os mecanismos de retroalimentação positiva de macrófitas submersas sobre a qualidade da água e importância de suas funções ecológicas para o estado trófico e gestão da Lagoa Mangueira. Além disso, este conjunto de informações constitui uma base teórico-prática para o manejo, restauração e conservação de lagos rasos subtropicais e tropicais. / The aim of this Thesis was to evaluate the role of the submerged macrophytes with respect to water quality and, interactions with phytoplankton and nutrient cycling in the large shallow subtropical Lake Mangueira, southern Brazil. To achieve these goals, this work counts with approaches in situ, in laboratory and aplication of ecological modelling to verifify the influence of the submerged vegetation over the dynamics of the ecosystem, whose water is intensively explored to irrigate rice crops around its surrounding area. Over the 200km of the lake littoral perimeter, several submerged macrophyte beds are established. The analysis of water quality and phytoplankton structure along a macrophyte-pelagic gradient revealed lower concentration of orto-phosphate (PO4) and chlorophyll-a (Chlo-a) in the vegetated area. At the pelagic zone, the higher Chlo-a values were corroborated by the higher biomass of phytoplankton, which was mostly composed by cyanobacteria species. Such evidences suggest the antagonistic relantionship between macrophytes and phytoplankton as nutrient competition and allelopathy. Experiments of coexistance, in microcosms, with 4 native submerged macrophytes and a toxic strain of the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa proved the occurrence of these mechanisms. The experiments included different levels of light intensity and orto-phosphate concentration (PO4) in the medium aiming to identify thresholds in which allelopathy is likely to occur. The macrophytes Cabomba caroliniana and Myriophyllum spicatum showed allelopathic potential while the species Ceratophyllum demersum and Egeria densa showed a high capacity for PO4 absorption (±0.35 mg.g-1d-1), being able to reduce this nutrient to lower levels than 0.05 mg.L-1. Another experimental approach was carried out to parameterize the leaching of nutrients and carbon from 5 macrophytes under decaying process. Moreover, ecological modelling was utilized to simulate the growth of submerged macrophytes in subtropical and temperate lakes. This was done aiming to evaluate the possibility of resilience enhancement of the clear water state in lakes of low latitude because the plants can grow continuously, in contrast with temperate lakes, where they die seasonally due to rigorous winter. In addition, simulation of scenarios considering the collapse of the vegetation in Lake Mangueira because of water uptake for rice crops were carried out in oder to provide elements for the ecosystem management. Through this approach, it was possible to forecast possible eutrophication thresholds for phytoplankton blomming. In conclusion, the results proved the the postive feed-back mechanisms exerted by the submerged macrophytes on the water quality and the importance of their ecological functions to the trophic state of Lake Mangueira. In addition, such information serve as theoretical and practical basis for the management, restoration and conservation of subtropical and tropical shallow lakes.