Forensic entomological field and laboratory studies were conducted to obtain data currently missing or conflicting in the literature. The first goal of this project was to identify and qualitatively assess the major taxa of forensic importance in southwest Virginia. Carcasses of the domestic pig, Sus scrofa L., were placed in field conditions and allowed to decompose until they reached the advanced stage of decay. Over 50 taxa were collected and identified, with Phormia regina, Phaenicia coeruleiviridis, Phaenicia sericata, Calliphora spp., Sarcophaga utilis, Musca domestica, Hydrotaea leucostoma, Stearibia nigriceps, Prochyliza xanthostoma, and Meroplius minutus among the most commonly observed fly species, and Creophilis maxillosus, Platydracus maculosus, Aleochara lata, Oiceoptoma noveboracense, Necrodes surinamensis, and Necrophila americana among the most commonly observed beetle species. The second objective of this study was to analyze successional patterns of taxa collected and identified in the carrion-insect succession studies. Occurrence matrices were constructed for the successional patterns of insect taxa during 21 sampling intervals in the spring and eight intervals in the summer studies. Permutation analyses of the occurrence matrices showed that the successional patterns of insect taxa were similar between spring 2001 and 2002 (P = 0.001) and between summer 2001 and 2002 (P = 0.007). Results indicated that the successional patterns appear to be typical for the seasonal periods. The third objective of this study was to analyze the effects of antemortem ingestion of ethanol by pigs on insect successional patterns and development rates. Pigs were dosed with a mixture of 95% ethanol and saline. Blood samples were collected immediately prior to euthanasia. The carcasses then were placed at an open field site and allowed to decompose. Insect samples were collected from carcasses for ten days post-mortem and the collected data were used to develop occurrence matrices. Permutation analysis to test the null hypothesis of no similarity between successional patterns of taxa from treated and untreated pigs showed that the successional patterns were similar. Loin meat from the carcasses was used as a rearing medium for field development studies of the black blow fly, Phormia regina. Development rates of 3rd instar P. regina maggots feeding on meat from treated pigs were significantly different from development rates of maggots feeding on meat from untreated pigs. No significant differences were detected in 1st and 2nd instars. Finally, the effect of relative humidity (RH) on egg hatch time and percent hatch rate of Phormia regina and Phaenicia coeruleiviridis was tested using saturated salt solutions. The global ANOVA of mean hatch times and percent hatch was found to be significant for P. regina at 20°C and 30°C and P. coerulieviridis at 20°C among RH levels at á = 0.05. T-test (LSD comparisons) results detected significant differences between some but not all RH levels within all three data series tested. Percent hatch observed varied widely, depending on the RH level. Of the levels tested, the lowest RH where hatch rate was observed was 53% (20°C) for P. coeruleiviridis, where only 1% of the eggs hatched. At 90+% RH, almost all of the eggs hatched for both species. / Ph. D.

A major issue facing nuclear power stations is how to effectively deal with radioactive waste. This waste, as it comes from a reactor, is emitting large quantities of ionizing radiation which is usually confined. Another form of radioactive wastes is the mill tailings from uranium processing plants. These tailings are sites characterized by low-level chronic radiation. The mill tailings of the Vitro Chemical Plant, in Salt Lake City, Utah, have been a point of radionuclide concentration and environmental contamination for 20 years. These tailings may adversely affect both surrounding ecosystems and any biological systems seeking to become established on the site. To test the potential hazard of this site to the succession of plant species I examined the interphase chromosome volume and relative amounts of DNA per chromosome from plants growing on this site and those on a control site. These nuclear parameters indicate the relative radio-sensitivity of a species and would demonstrate the total effectiveness of the low-level chronic radiation in altering plant succession. The radiosensitive plant Tradescantia clone 02 was also grown in five soil samples from the mill tailings which represented a progressive increase in radioactivity. The purpose was to determine how effective these radiation levels are in altering reproductive integrity, fecundity, and somatic mutation rates in radiosensitive plant species. There was a difference in species composition between plant communities growing on the mill tailings as compared to the controls as determined by coefficient of community. However, there was no difference in interphase chromosome volume or relative amounts of DNA per chromosome between plants growing on these two sites. The difference in species composition is attributed to the length of time each site has been undergoing succession, with the control site in a more advanced stage. Tradescantia grown in soil with a radiation dose greater than 0.10 mR/hr had significantly reduced reproductive integrity and fecundity, as measured by the number of stunted hairs on a stamen and poll en viability, and increased numbers of somatic mutations. Based on these data the radioactive mill tailings from the Vitro Chemical Plant have the potential to alter plant successional patterns due to their detrimental effect on any species that is relatively radiosensitive.

Ecological restoration projects are considered successful when identified goals are achieved and the ecosystem progresses along a predicted successional trajectory. My study examined the progress of early-stage forest restoration projects within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo to determine the variables that affect early successional trajectories. The study was undertaken to gain further insight into the most appropriate methods to use in the evaluation of restoration outcomes and to provide some useful recommendations for restoration ecologists and practitioners. <br /><br /> Between April-October 2005 and April 2006, data were collected using a stratified random sampling technique and the wandering-quarter method to evaluate herbaceous vegetation, regenerating woody vegetation and mature trees at 7 forest restoration sites within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. The Regional Municipality of Waterloo was selected as the study area because it has restoration projects established in forested ecosystems and the Region is typical of southern Ontario, i. e. , forest ecosystems have been disturbed by urban and agricultural activities and require ecological restoration. <br /><br /> A nested Analysis of Variance was used to test the responses of various herbaceous and woody vegetation parameters to the restoration site, restoration technique nested within the restoration site, and transects nested within the restoration technique. Site location, restoration technique, and restoration transect all appear to significantly affect restoration progress for some structural metrics. Species diversity (measured by the Shannon-Wiener Index) was significantly affected by the restoration site (p<0. 01) and transect nested within the restoration technique (p<0. 01). For some sites, differences in diversity among transects are expected to diminish as restoration proceeds and natural succession progresses. For heavily degraded sites, however, that exhibit low native plant species diversity may require a more intensive restoration strategy to improve local conditions. Density was significantly affected by the restoration site (p<0. 001) and the restoration technique nested within the site (p<0. 01). Sites without a closed forest canopy had higher densities of plants for all sampling guilds. The percentage of native species was significantly affected by the restoration site (p<0. 01) and the restoration technique nested with the site (p<0. 05). Sites that were restored from degraded forest conditions, rather than from old fields, exhibited significantly higher percentages of native plants for all sampling guilds. <br /><br /> Generally, sites with high species diversity, a high percentage of native species, and high density indicated that ecological restoration was progressing on the predicted successional trajectories and should lead to a successful restoration as time goes on. Results indicate that 4 out of 7 restoration sites are progressing as expected, i. e. , towards the predetermined restoration goal. The remaining 3 restoration sites may recover over time, but will most likely require additional restoration measures to achieve a desirable long-term outcome. At early-stages, structural measures appear to be useful indicators for evaluating the progress of restoration. In order for a restoring ecosystem to follow along an expected trajectory, formative evaluation must occur throughout the process to ensure that positive outcomes are achieved along the way. The study concludes that evaluating the progress of forest restoration projects at an early stage could greatly improve the long-term success of restoration outcomes by offering opportunities for mid-course correction and to learn from past mistakes.

Ecological restoration projects are considered successful when identified goals are achieved and the ecosystem progresses along a predicted successional trajectory. My study examined the progress of early-stage forest restoration projects within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo to determine the variables that affect early successional trajectories. The study was undertaken to gain further insight into the most appropriate methods to use in the evaluation of restoration outcomes and to provide some useful recommendations for restoration ecologists and practitioners. <br /><br /> Between April-October 2005 and April 2006, data were collected using a stratified random sampling technique and the wandering-quarter method to evaluate herbaceous vegetation, regenerating woody vegetation and mature trees at 7 forest restoration sites within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. The Regional Municipality of Waterloo was selected as the study area because it has restoration projects established in forested ecosystems and the Region is typical of southern Ontario, i. e. , forest ecosystems have been disturbed by urban and agricultural activities and require ecological restoration. <br /><br /> A nested Analysis of Variance was used to test the responses of various herbaceous and woody vegetation parameters to the restoration site, restoration technique nested within the restoration site, and transects nested within the restoration technique. Site location, restoration technique, and restoration transect all appear to significantly affect restoration progress for some structural metrics. Species diversity (measured by the Shannon-Wiener Index) was significantly affected by the restoration site (p<0. 01) and transect nested within the restoration technique (p<0. 01). For some sites, differences in diversity among transects are expected to diminish as restoration proceeds and natural succession progresses. For heavily degraded sites, however, that exhibit low native plant species diversity may require a more intensive restoration strategy to improve local conditions. Density was significantly affected by the restoration site (p<0. 001) and the restoration technique nested within the site (p<0. 01). Sites without a closed forest canopy had higher densities of plants for all sampling guilds. The percentage of native species was significantly affected by the restoration site (p<0. 01) and the restoration technique nested with the site (p<0. 05). Sites that were restored from degraded forest conditions, rather than from old fields, exhibited significantly higher percentages of native plants for all sampling guilds. <br /><br /> Generally, sites with high species diversity, a high percentage of native species, and high density indicated that ecological restoration was progressing on the predicted successional trajectories and should lead to a successful restoration as time goes on. Results indicate that 4 out of 7 restoration sites are progressing as expected, i. e. , towards the predetermined restoration goal. The remaining 3 restoration sites may recover over time, but will most likely require additional restoration measures to achieve a desirable long-term outcome. At early-stages, structural measures appear to be useful indicators for evaluating the progress of restoration. In order for a restoring ecosystem to follow along an expected trajectory, formative evaluation must occur throughout the process to ensure that positive outcomes are achieved along the way. The study concludes that evaluating the progress of forest restoration projects at an early stage could greatly improve the long-term success of restoration outcomes by offering opportunities for mid-course correction and to learn from past mistakes.

Since the time of European settlement, land-use history, management practices, the introduction of non-native invasive species (NNIS), and climate change have dramatically changed the successional pathways of Southern Illinois forests. Biodiversity is considered essential for ecosystem health and resiliency, so understanding the impact theses forest changes have on biodiversity is necessary to guide future management decisions. This study was conducted at Touch of Nature Environmental Center (TONEC) in Southern Illinois using the Shannon diversity index (H') to compare the levels of biodiversity in the overstory, shrub, seedling, and herbaceous layers across early, mid, and mature successional stages. Twenty plots were randomly placed within early, mid, and mature forest successional stages for a total of 60 plots. Four circular nested vegetation plots were recorded at each plot location. In the overstory plots (area 314.16 m2), woody stems above 6.5 cm diameter at breast height (dbh), age class, and crown were all recorded. In the shrub layer (area 28.27 m2), all woody stems between 2.5 and 6.5 cm dbh were recorded, while in the seedling layer (area 3.14 m2), all woody stems < 1 cm dbh were recorded. In the herbaceous layer, (area 1 m2) species were measured by percent cover. Shannon diversity index (H') was calculated for each plot. When vegetation layers were combined and mean H' within forest successional stages were compared, no differences were found. However, when successional stages were combined within each vegetation layer, the shrub layer had the least H' increasing to seedling, increasing again to overstory and herbaceous; these being equal. When breaking down the vegetation layers separately and comparing H' across successional stages within each, both the overstory and shrub layers had no difference. Early successional was the least diverse in seedling, rising to mid and mature, which were equal. The herbaceous layer showed an opposite trend with early having the highest H' decreasing to mid and decreasing again to mature. Finally looking at the differences across vegetation layers within early, mid, and mature successional stages. Early-successional had the most variability with the highest H' in herbaceous; this decreased progressively to overstory then to shrub and seedling, which were equal. In mid-successional plots, overstory, seedling, and herbaceous layers were equal with H' decreasing in shrub. In mature plots, all vegetation layers had the same H'. Across all vegetation layers, the highest percentage of NNIS was in early-successional, followed by mid, with notably less found in mature forest. Even in instances where H' values were the same, species composition across forest successional stages were quite different. While overall biodiversity is the same across successional stages, differences in H' can be seen when looking at the vegetation layers. Management should focus on removing NNIS in the early and mid-successional forests paying particular attention to the shrub layer, which has the overall lowest H' with the most dramatic differences in composition and the presence of NNIS across all successional stages. Also of concern is the low H' in the seedling layer in early-successional forest, which reduces the likelihood of successful regeneration of these hardwood stands in the future.

The spider communities of four stages of a successional sere leading to and including spruce forests were studied in northern Utah. Four seral stages were recognized. These include: meadows, aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands, subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) forest, and the climax Engelmann spruce (Pica engelmanii) forests. During the snow-free periods of 1976, 1977 and 1978, 15,987 spiders were collected by three methods including: pitfall traps, by beating vegetation, and with sweep-net samples. Additionally, 1600 15-second intervals of behavioral observations, and measurements of 182 web locations were made. Of 99 species collected, 44 were considered residents of the sere: criteria for assigning the spiders to foraging strategies (3) and guilds (9) are presented. Five spider communities were ostensively defined--one in the ground stratum of each of the stages and one in the tree stratum of the conifer stages. The data were used to compare the guild strategies of the spiders of the seral stages and to address various hypotheses about successional change in animal community characteristics. Increases with maturity as predicted were observed for 6 spider community parameters including: total biomass, species diversity--richness component, species diversity--equitability component, stratification and spatial heterogeneity, mean organism size, and temporal stratification. A life cycle hypothesis (i.e., short and simple life cycles in early stages, long and complex ones in mature stages) could not be tested because, depending on the life cycle type considered, I found diametrically opposed trends (semi-annual and biennial life cycle types both increased with maturity). The spider species of the ground-stratum meadow community were primarily dispersed in a time dimension (seasonal); the spiders of the tree-stratum community were primarily distributed in a spatial dimension (microhabitat). Spiders of the forest ground-strata communities were dispersed in spatial and temporal dimensions. No dimension was ascertained to be of fundamental importance. Distributions of ground-dwelling species with different foraging strategies, and the resident species of the ground-stratum communities were correlated canonically to 8 environmental variables. Spider species of the meadow community were correlated with a bare dirt variable. Spiders of the aspen community were correlated with 2 environmental variables including: grasses and forbs and a low foliage index. Hunting spiders were correlated with the meadow and aspen variables. Ambushing spiders, web-building spiders, and the spider species of the ground stratum spruce community were correlated with 5 environmental variables including: litter depth, canopy cover, tree basal area, dead leaves and needles, and logs.

Managed loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) stands are common in the southeastern United States and provide young forest conditions for early successional breeding birds. Common pine management practices (e.g. hardwood control) and novel practices (e.g. switchgrass [Panicum virgatum] intercropping), may influence breeding bird use. I evaluated breeding bird abundance, diversity, and resource use within loblolly stands treated to control hardwood species, intercropped with switchgrass, and with no additional management. Hardwood control and switchgrass intercropping both decreased hardwoods and shrubs, and increased forbs. Switchgrass intercropping increased some early successional bird abundances. However, diversity was not different among treatments. Switchgrass intercropping increased 13C:12C in birds and vegetation; both hardwood control and switchgrass intercropping increased 15N:14N in birds and vegetation. Birds moved freely among stands of different ages and management practices. My results suggest these practices improve conditions for some early successional birds and may help maintain ecological value of loblolly stands for birds.

Early-successional bird species are showing alarming declines across the Northeast and particularly in New England. Utilizing limited resources to the best advantage of these declining bird species is a vital task for land managers. In 2006 and 2007, I collected bird abundance and habitat information from 87 points in early-successional habitat in Connecticut. The objective of this effort was to evaluate the relationships between the habitat variables collected at a plot using the point intercept method and the associated bird abundance at the plot. A second objective was to compare two different methods of characterizing early-successional habitat in explaining the variance in bird abundance. A plot-based method based on the BBIRD protocol from Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit and the point intercept method were compared. Finally, I designed and created a database written in Microsoft Access which was used to standardize data entry, aid in the sharing of data and to calculate summary statistics to assist habitat managers in making conservation decisions. The habitat variables were grouped according to composition and structure to analyze bird-habitat relationships. Low broadleaved shrubs, broadleaved shrubs, fern/forbs, conifers, broadleaved trees and invasives, as well as average height for shrubs and trees were used for the analysis. Nine focal early-successional species that are showing general trends of decline were chosen from the list of all birds seen or heard. Bird abundance and detectibility covariates were modeled with the habitat variables using N-mixture models (2004). Up to 24% of the variation of the best models (based upon AICc) was explained by the predictors I investigated. Five of the 9 birds showed a positive correlation to a shrub category variable. Fern/forbs, graminoids and invasives were found to exert less influence on the abundance of these scrub-shrub birds. Results indicated that the date of the survey affected the detectibility of only 5 of the species, and vegetation height only affected one of the species. Overall correlations indicate that these nine shrubland dependent species utilize a structurally complex habitat including broadleaved shrubs less 2 meters in height and than 2-5 meters in height and herbaceous forbs and graminoids. Invasive plants were found to be positively correlated to 2 of the 9 species possibly warranting additional work on the affects of these species on early-successional birds. Thirty-one of the total 87 point count points were selected for the comparison between the BBIRD and point intercept method. I choose six focal early-successional species for the analysis: indigo bunting, blue-winged warbler, chestnut-sided warbler, yellow warbler, prairie warbler and the common yellowthroat. The point intercept and BBIRD methods explained on average the same amount of variability in the data, and models from each data set included nearly the same number of variables, on average. Thus, we conclude these two vegetation sampling methodologies were essentially equivalent in summarizing important characteristics of scrub-shrub bird habitats. In the field, the BBIRD method took on average almost twice as long to complete as the point intercept method. Because in this study the two methods were similar in the amount of the bird abundance variance they explained and because the BBIRD method takes substantially longer to complete, I recommend that the point intercept method be considered an acceptable method for managers to use to characterize the relationships between early-successional bird species and their habitat. An important step in the successful conservation of declining early-successional bird species is the creation of database management systems and the coordination and cooperation amongst agencies that can stem from the use of these databases. The database I created ensures standardized data entry for data collected from multiple sites over many years. The database takes this data and can be queried for whatever particular information a manager needs. Percent cover of vegetation and invasives, average height of vegetation, and bird abundance are summarized and graphically displayed by the database. Ease of operation, ability to query and ability to share the information makes this database an important tool in the successful conservation of declining species

Heterogeneous landscapes made up of variegated patches are common among managed ecosystems, and often provide diverse structural and compositional habitat characteristics. Landscape heterogeneity can affect distribution of resources, competition, and dispersal of organisms over space and time. Therefore, understanding how species respond to dynamic landscapes is necessary when implementing management decisions that foster biodiversity within managed ecosystems. My study uses hierarchical models in a Bayesian framework to quantify effects of landscape context on meso-mammal predators and northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) occupancy in an intensively managed loblolly pine forest. Results indicate that edge density can positively influence occupancy of meso-mammal predators, while age of stand, or years since disturbance, can negatively influence occupancy of northern bobwhite. These results further illustrate the importance of considering biodiversity implications when making management decisions.

Land-use history has been recognized as an important factor in shaping biological communities in clear-cuts. Many solitary bees and flower beetles (Cerambycidae: Lepturinae) are commonly found in clear-cuts, which serve as early successional habitats. I analyzed the effect of land-use history on the abundance and species richness, as well as the preference for land-use history in specific species, of solitary bees and flower beetles in coniferous clear-cuts in southern Sweden. Additionally, the effect of site-specific environmental factors was examined. Insects were caught with blue, white and yellow pan-traps in 48 clear-cuts, of which half were meadow and half were forest in the 1870s. With few exceptions, the species found did not show preference for any land-use history. Furthermore, land-use history had no significant effect on the abundance or species richness of solitary bees or flower beetles. This may be due to pan-traps being less attractive in flower-rich locations, a bias in the sampling method. However, species richness and abundance of solitary bees was higher in young clear-cuts (2-4 years old), probably best explained by more exposed soil and higher frequencies of flowering plants in newer clear-cuts. Abundance of flower beetles was higher in old clear-cuts (6-8 years old). This may be due to larger amounts of more strongly decomposed wood in older clear-cuts, which is used in the flower beetles´ larval development. I conclude that solitary bees are likely to benefit if clear-cuts, particularly with meadow history, are kept more open by introducing disturbance regimes, as suggested by previous studies.