This report investigates the theme of supplication in both the Iliad and Odyssey especially in regards to the role of Zeus as protector of suppliants in each of the poems. Although Zeus is never given the epithet Hikesios in the Iliad as is the case in the Odyssey, he nevertheless acts as such in the Iliad’s final scenes of supplication. The scenes discussed in this paper include the supplication between Thetis and Zeus, Adrastos and Menelaus, Hektor and Achilles, Priam and Achilles, Odysseus and the Cyclops, and Odysseus and Arete. While Zeus appears indifferent to the battlefield suppliants in the Iliad such as Adrastos in the beginning of the Iliad, his own interest in justice as well as an increasing value of the suppliant draw Zeus into a more active role in supplications. This phenomenon is further supported by supplication scenes in the Odyssey that refer to events of the Iliad and in which Zeus is explicitly called “protector of suppliants.” / text

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Pour les citoyens d’Athènes au Ve siècle, l’expérience de la tragédie n’avait pas son début lorsque les spectateurs prenaient leur place dans le théâtre de Dionysos : en tant qu’expérience rituelle, la tragédie s’inscrit dans le contexte festif des Grandes Dionysies, point de référence fondamental pour comprendre les interactions entre le drame et les spectateurs en tant que πολῖται.Au cours des rites accomplis aux Dionysies, et en général au cours de chaque rituel accompli dans d’autres contextes, le rôle de spectateur constituait une activité rituelle à tous égards. Lorsqu'un rituel fait partie de l’intrigue du drame, un mécanisme de mise en abyme est activé en fonction des compétences et des expériences rituelles des spectateurs, qui étaient capables de reconnaître la forme, les implications et les marges d'efficacité du rite. Les rites tragiques présentent donc une efficacité rituelle, déterminée par la comparaison avec le rite réel, et une efficacité dramatique, liée aux dynamiques de l’intrigue. Les images des rituels de la tragédie sont construites en tant qu'images polyvalentes, connectées aux événements dramatiques et associées à l'expérience rituelle des πολῖται.Le rituel est également inséré dans les dynamiques de la performance tragique ; certains rites (supplications, lamentations, offrandes non sanglantes) sont particulièrement « bons à représenter » sur la scène, tandis que d'autres (notamment le sacrifice sanglant) se déroulent dans des espaces invisibles aux spectateurs. L'observation des mécanismes par lesquels l'espace de l'orchestre est modelé par la représentation du rite, et mis en communication avec les espaces rituel invisibles permet de comprendre comment les détails de l'action rituelle sont utilisé pour obtenir un effet dramatique. D'autre part, isoler les caractéristiques des rituels représentés dans l'orchestre du théâtre de Dionysos permet de réfléchir à la nature de la tragédie grecque en tant qu'expérience rituelle. / The experience of ancient Greek tragedy did not begin, for the 5th century Athenians, when the spectators took their place in the theatre of Dionysus: as a ritual experience, Greek tragedy is part of the ritual context of the Great Dionysia. During the festival, and in general during every ritual performed on a small or large scale, the role of spectator constituted a ritual activity in all respects.When a ritual is part of the tragic plot, it generates a mechanism of mise en abyme based on the skills and the ritual experiences of the spectators, who are able to recognize the form, the implications and the efficacy of the rite. The dramatic rites have their ritual efficacy, determined by the comparison with the actual rite, and their dramatic efficacy, depending on the dynamics of the tragic plot. The ritual sequences in Greek tragedy are represented as polyvalent images, connected to the interweaving of dramatic events, and associated with the ritual experience of the πολῖται.The ritual is also part of the dynamics of the tragic performance: some rites (supplication, funeral lamentations, bloodless offerings) are embedded on the tragic scene, while others (especially blood sacrifices) are performed offstage, and are therefore invisible to the spectators.Focusing on how dramatic rituals influence the construction of the dramatic space, and observing the mechanisms of ritual communication between the space of the theatre and the invisible ritual spaces, can help us understand how the representation of ritual actions can be used to activate the ritual competences and experiences of the spectators of ancient Greek Tragedy.On the other hand, observing the characteristics of the rituals that are suitable to be represented onstage, and embedded in the orchestra of the theatre of Dionysus, can clarify some aspects of ancient Greek tragedy as a ritual experience. / L’esperienza della tragedia non iniziava, per gli Ateniesi del quinto secolo, nel momento in cui gli spettatori prendevano posto nel teatro di Dioniso: in quanto esperienza rituale, la tragedia si inserisce nel contesto festivo delle Grandi Dionisie, punto di riferimento fondamentale per comprendere come il dramma interagiva con gli spettatori in quanto πολῖται. Nel corso dei rituali delle Dionisie, e di ogni rito compiuto su piccola o grande scala, l’attività di spettatore costituiva un’attività rituale a tutti gli effetti.Quando un rito si inserisce nel μῦθος del dramma, viene attivato un meccanismo di mise en abyme basato sulle competenze e le esperienze rituali degli spettatori, che sono in grado di riconoscere la forma, le implicazioni e l’orizzonte di efficacia del rito. I riti presentano un’efficacia rituale, determinata dal confronto col rito reale, e un’efficacia drammatica, connessa alle dinamiche degli eventi tragici. Le immagini dei rituali in tragedia si costruiscono come immagini polivalenti, che si connettono all’intreccio di vicende drammatiche, e si associano all’esperienza rituale dei πολῖται.Il rituale si inserisce, inoltre, nelle dinamiche della performance: alcuni riti (supplica, lamentazione funebre, offerte incruente) sono particolarmente adatti a essere rappresentati sulla scena, mentre altri (in particolare il sacrificio cruento) sono relegati negli spazi invisibili agli spettatori.Osservare i meccanismi con cui lo spazio dell’orchestra viene modellato dal rito, e messo in comunicazione con gli spazi rituali invisibili, permette di comprendere come i dettagli dell’azione rituale vengono evocati, sfruttando le esperienze rituali degli spettatori, per ottenere un effetto drammatico.Dall’altra parte, isolare le caratteristiche dei rituali rappresentati nell’orchestra del teatro di Dioniso permette di riflettere sulla natura della tragedia greca come esperienza rituale.

Desenvolvemos aqui um estudo comparativo entre as epopéias gregas, Ilíada e Odisséia, e as indianas, Mahbharata e Ramayana. Analisamos, primeiramente, similitudes existentes entre essas obras. Nessa primeira etapa, mostramos que elas utilizam procedimentos literários semelhantes, têm os mesmos objetivos e apresentam aspectos mitológicos semelhantes: heróis descendentes de deuses, conformidade nas características dos deuses e temas análogos, além de detalhes análogos relativos ao gênero épico clássico, tais como o tempo pretérito arquetípico, a narração em terceira pessoa e estruturas discursivas semelhantes. Após o desenvolvimento dessa análise, voltamos nossa atenção para a atitude de súplica dos personagens, com o objetivo de demonstrar algumas diferenças significativas entre as atitudes de súplica exibidas pelos heróis gregos e pelos heróis indianos. Podemos observar em todas essas epopéias um quadro semelhante referente à atitude de súplica que busca restabelecer a ordem alterada: o herói ora ao seu deus para obter proteção e força que o tornem capaz de derrotar o inimigo, causador da desordem. Para além desse quadro, no entanto, com análise mais atenta, podemos verificar que o suplicante revela também intenções mais íntimas, ligadas aos anseios referentes à sua vida futura e cujo estudo nos leva a conhecer concepções teológicas e filosóficas da sociedade da época de produção dessas obras. Com o conhecimento das diferenças entre certos conceitos pertinentes à cultura grega e cultura indiana, obtemos elementos para a compreensão das diferenças entre as atitudes de súplica apresentadas pelos heróis dos épicos referentes a essas culturas. Assim, esse relacionamento entre deuses e homens é um aspecto fundamental nessas obras. Faz parte dos valores determinados de antemão pelo destinador sóciohistórico, com os quais o sujeito da enunciação constrói esses discursos. Nessas construções lingüísticas da Antigüidade há um contrato veridictório proposto e assumido referente à exposição alegórica do poder de atuação dos heróis. Nesse contrato, o enunciatário aceita a proposta de que esse poder é conferido pelos deuses. Desse modo, o sujeito da enunciação se desdobra em enunciador e enunciatário, cujas caracterizações nos permitem ter acesso à enunciação. O estudo das diferenças entre as atitudes de súplicas dos heróis gregos e dos heróis indianos foi levado a cabo através de um exame da construção dos sujeitos, em que analisamos marcas diversas existentes no texto - que nos permitem recuperar a enunciação - e também temas sustentados por formações ideológicas. Assim, após inserir cada texto no contexto de sua formação ideológica, examinamos o sentido construído pelo sujeito do discurso de cada obra, e procuramos mostrar essas diferenças / The aim of this thesis is to present a comparative study between the Greek epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, and the Indian epics The Mahabharata and The Ramayana. In a first instance we shall analyze some of the several similarities occurring within these epic poems. During this first stage, we shall highlight how these poems make use of similar literary elements; have similar objectives, present similar mythological aspects (i.e. heroes descending from gods; resemblances in the characteristics of the gods) and present similar themes. We also point out similarities in regard to the genre, such as the use of archetypal past tenses and of a third person narrative, as well as of similar discursive structures. After this first analysis we direct our attention to the pleading attitude of the characters in order to highlight some of the significant differences between the attitude of supplication exhibited by the Greek hero and the attitude of supplication exhibited by the Indian hero. Similar scenarios can be recognized in the body of all these epic poems in regard to this attitude of supplicating for the power to re-establish a harmony that has been disrupted: in all of them a hero prays to his god with the hope that he will be granted the protection and strength with which he will be able to defeat the cause of disturbance, depicted as the enemy. However when a more careful analysis is carried out we verify that the supplicant sometimes is also manifesting personal objectives, which are connected to his own expectations about his future. The study of these more subtle personal intentions took us to a thorough study of both the theological and philosophical thought processes of the Greek and Indian societies during the historical periods when these poems were produced. This study of the differences found within the above mentioned thought processes provided relevant information which in turn enabled us to better understand the subtle differences found in the pleading attitudes of the epic heroes related to these cultures. These relationships between gods and men are a fundamental aspect of these writings. They are directly linked to values previously established by the social and historical determiners, with which the subject of the enunciation builds up these discourses. In these linguistic structures of ancient times we find what can be referred to as a pre-established agreement between the enunciator and the enunciater. This agreement is directly connected to the allegorical exhibitions of the acting powers of the heroes, i.e. the enunciater accepts without questioning the proposal that the heroes\' superhuman powers are granted by the gods. Thus the subject of the enunciation unfolds itself between the enunciator and the enunciater, whose characterizations allow us to have access to the enunciation. In summary this study of the differences between the pleading attitude of the Greek hero and the Indian hero was undertaken through examining the construction of the subjective. We analysed several different elements of the texts - this allowed us to recover the enunciation - and we also analyzed themes supported by the ideological backgrounds of the texts. In this way, after inserting the text within the context of the specific historical ideological scenario of each one, we were able to examine the linguistic meanings brought up by the subjective of the discourses and subsequently seek to clarify the resulting differences

Desenvolvemos aqui um estudo comparativo entre as epopéias gregas, Ilíada e Odisséia, e as indianas, Mahbharata e Ramayana. Analisamos, primeiramente, similitudes existentes entre essas obras. Nessa primeira etapa, mostramos que elas utilizam procedimentos literários semelhantes, têm os mesmos objetivos e apresentam aspectos mitológicos semelhantes: heróis descendentes de deuses, conformidade nas características dos deuses e temas análogos, além de detalhes análogos relativos ao gênero épico clássico, tais como o tempo pretérito arquetípico, a narração em terceira pessoa e estruturas discursivas semelhantes. Após o desenvolvimento dessa análise, voltamos nossa atenção para a atitude de súplica dos personagens, com o objetivo de demonstrar algumas diferenças significativas entre as atitudes de súplica exibidas pelos heróis gregos e pelos heróis indianos. Podemos observar em todas essas epopéias um quadro semelhante referente à atitude de súplica que busca restabelecer a ordem alterada: o herói ora ao seu deus para obter proteção e força que o tornem capaz de derrotar o inimigo, causador da desordem. Para além desse quadro, no entanto, com análise mais atenta, podemos verificar que o suplicante revela também intenções mais íntimas, ligadas aos anseios referentes à sua vida futura e cujo estudo nos leva a conhecer concepções teológicas e filosóficas da sociedade da época de produção dessas obras. Com o conhecimento das diferenças entre certos conceitos pertinentes à cultura grega e cultura indiana, obtemos elementos para a compreensão das diferenças entre as atitudes de súplica apresentadas pelos heróis dos épicos referentes a essas culturas. Assim, esse relacionamento entre deuses e homens é um aspecto fundamental nessas obras. Faz parte dos valores determinados de antemão pelo destinador sóciohistórico, com os quais o sujeito da enunciação constrói esses discursos. Nessas construções lingüísticas da Antigüidade há um contrato veridictório proposto e assumido referente à exposição alegórica do poder de atuação dos heróis. Nesse contrato, o enunciatário aceita a proposta de que esse poder é conferido pelos deuses. Desse modo, o sujeito da enunciação se desdobra em enunciador e enunciatário, cujas caracterizações nos permitem ter acesso à enunciação. O estudo das diferenças entre as atitudes de súplicas dos heróis gregos e dos heróis indianos foi levado a cabo através de um exame da construção dos sujeitos, em que analisamos marcas diversas existentes no texto - que nos permitem recuperar a enunciação - e também temas sustentados por formações ideológicas. Assim, após inserir cada texto no contexto de sua formação ideológica, examinamos o sentido construído pelo sujeito do discurso de cada obra, e procuramos mostrar essas diferenças / The aim of this thesis is to present a comparative study between the Greek epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, and the Indian epics The Mahabharata and The Ramayana. In a first instance we shall analyze some of the several similarities occurring within these epic poems. During this first stage, we shall highlight how these poems make use of similar literary elements; have similar objectives, present similar mythological aspects (i.e. heroes descending from gods; resemblances in the characteristics of the gods) and present similar themes. We also point out similarities in regard to the genre, such as the use of archetypal past tenses and of a third person narrative, as well as of similar discursive structures. After this first analysis we direct our attention to the pleading attitude of the characters in order to highlight some of the significant differences between the attitude of supplication exhibited by the Greek hero and the attitude of supplication exhibited by the Indian hero. Similar scenarios can be recognized in the body of all these epic poems in regard to this attitude of supplicating for the power to re-establish a harmony that has been disrupted: in all of them a hero prays to his god with the hope that he will be granted the protection and strength with which he will be able to defeat the cause of disturbance, depicted as the enemy. However when a more careful analysis is carried out we verify that the supplicant sometimes is also manifesting personal objectives, which are connected to his own expectations about his future. The study of these more subtle personal intentions took us to a thorough study of both the theological and philosophical thought processes of the Greek and Indian societies during the historical periods when these poems were produced. This study of the differences found within the above mentioned thought processes provided relevant information which in turn enabled us to better understand the subtle differences found in the pleading attitudes of the epic heroes related to these cultures. These relationships between gods and men are a fundamental aspect of these writings. They are directly linked to values previously established by the social and historical determiners, with which the subject of the enunciation builds up these discourses. In these linguistic structures of ancient times we find what can be referred to as a pre-established agreement between the enunciator and the enunciater. This agreement is directly connected to the allegorical exhibitions of the acting powers of the heroes, i.e. the enunciater accepts without questioning the proposal that the heroes\' superhuman powers are granted by the gods. Thus the subject of the enunciation unfolds itself between the enunciator and the enunciater, whose characterizations allow us to have access to the enunciation. In summary this study of the differences between the pleading attitude of the Greek hero and the Indian hero was undertaken through examining the construction of the subjective. We analysed several different elements of the texts - this allowed us to recover the enunciation - and we also analyzed themes supported by the ideological backgrounds of the texts. In this way, after inserting the text within the context of the specific historical ideological scenario of each one, we were able to examine the linguistic meanings brought up by the subjective of the discourses and subsequently seek to clarify the resulting differences

Breast-baring occurs in fifth century Attic tragedy in a variety of situations, but almost always within a mournful context. Many connotations of the naked breast—vulnerability, womanhood, motherhood, and voluntary humiliation—can be evoked. Breast-baring can be a precursor of the death of the woman who exposes herself or of the death of the person to whom she makes the gesture. The most commonly represented context is the supplication of a son by a mother, a topos which finds its origin in Hecuba’s supplication of Hector (Il. 22.79-89). As a consistent failure, breast-baring during supplication reinforces the idea, commonly held in the society of the time, that female power is inferior to male power. The motivations for the gesture will be examined both within the respective literary contexts and within the society of the period. / Classics and World Languages / MA (Classical Studies)