This thesis investigates South African history teachers’ understandings of citizenship education while it is being reconceptualised in post-apartheid curriculum change. The main purposes are to examine how teachers understand citizenship education and thereby identify what concept of citizenship emerges as central in their understandings. It finally seeks to establish whether or not teachers’ conceptualizations of citizenship education match citizenship education as conceptualized in the present Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (2011). This thesis uses a qualitative methodological approach that includes semi-structured interviews to collect the data from the teachers’. It further uses discourse analysis in order to identify central discourses in teachers’ understandings of citizenship education. The thesis shows that teachers’ understandings of citizenship education include elements of nationalism, national identity, learning to act in the interest of the wider society, addressing past issues related to apartheid and the struggle for democracy, the law, rights and the constitution. The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement that is now in use in South Africa focuses on issues central to citizenship education, such as the learner as an individual, citizen identity, learners acting in the interest of their own life, addressing current issues in society, promotion of knowledge and skills in local contexts. This shows an important difference, where teachers’ understandings of citizenship education are mainly promoting citizenship as a legal and passive concept, while the curriculum holds a focus on citizenship education which promotes citizenship as a moral concept. The main conclusion of this thesis is that there are differences of understandings of citizenship education between the teachers and the curriculum, and consequently the meanings and purpose of the emerging concept of citizenship is being pulled in different directions. This indicates a need to make the curriculum citizenship education agenda more explicit as well as a need for the development of teachers’ professional awareness of what is to be expected from them regarding citizenship education. This thesis uses both primary and secondary sources to arrive at these conclusions.

The focus of my study is on two history textbooks intended for the 7th grade, one retired from the Puerto RicanDepartment of Education (PRDE) in 2002, titled “Puerto Rico: Tierra Adentro, Mar Afuera” (Picó & Rivera, 1991) and the textbook that replaced it, “Historia y Geografía de Puerto Rico 7” (Cardona, Mafuz, Rodríguez, et al. 2002), currently in use within of the PRDE. Using critical pedagogy as my theoretical lenses, I analyzed how the Puerto Rico-United States historical relationship is conceptualized within these two history textbooks, released under the administration of two different political parties. The historical events chosen for analysis match the beginning of the Puerto Rican-United States’ political relations until its current state of affairs. These events are: the United States’ invasion to Puerto Rico in 1898; the Foraker Act of 1900; the Jones Act of 1917; and the Organic Law 600 (or “Estado Libre Asociado”) in 1952, which defines today’s political relations between the two countries. I refer to the work of three historians (Alegría et al, 1988; Silvestrini & Luque de Sánchez, 1988; and Scarano, 2000) as a mirror to explore how the events are conceptualized within the analyzed textbooks and how these are conceived and written by historians. I analyzed the selected textbooks utilizing the Norman Fairclough’s (1989, 2003) approach to critical discourse analysis. Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is the study of written and spoken texts to reveal the discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and bias. I compared how the selected historical events are described within the work of Puerto Rican historians, versus how these are conceptualized within the textbooks selected for analysis. During the process I examined the wording used, events included, events omitted, and the nature and extent of details provided for each, among other linguistic features. The analysis suggest that the conceptualization of the Hispanic-American War and the 54 years after US invasion to Puerto Rico correlates to the political agenda of the political parties in power at the moment of the production of each history textbook. Moreover, I aimed to explore how the conceptualization of the PR-US relations might participate in the self- destructive discourses among the Puerto Rican population, as identified by other researchers on the field of psychology and sociology. / Mi estudio analiza dos libros de texto para estudiantes del 7mo grado, uno retirado del Departamento de Educación de Puerto Rico (DEPR) en año 2002, titulado “Puerto Rico: Tierra Adentro, Mar Afuera” (Picó & Rivera, 1991) y el texto que le remplazó, “Historia y Geografía de Puerto Rico 7” (Cardona, Mafuz, Rodríguez, et al. 2002), actualmente en uso dentro del DEPR. Utilizando la pedagogía crítica como el marco teórico de mi investigación, analizo cómo se conceptualiza la relación histórica entre Puerto Rico y Estados Unidos en ambos libros de texto, ambos distribuidos bajo la administración política de partidos políticos diferentes. Los eventos históricos analizados pretenden abarcar el comienzo de las relaciones políticas entre ambos países hasta su relación actual. Estos eventos son: La guerra Hispano-Americana en 1898; la Ley Foraker, en 1900; la Ley Jones, de 1917; y la Ley Orgánica 600 (o “Estado Libre Asociado”) en 1952. Como ventana hacia los eventos históricos analizados, me refiero al trabajo de tres historiadores puertorriqueños (Alegría et al, 1988; Silvestrini & Luque de Sánchez, 1988; y Scarano, 2000) y comparo cómo estos eventos son escritos y conceptualizados por historiadores, versus cómo son representados en los libros de texto escolares. El análisis se llevó a cabo utilizando el modelo de análisis de discurso crítico de Norman Fairclough (1989, 2003). Análisis del discurso crítico es es el estudio de texto escrito o hablado a fin de de-construir discursos de poder, dominancia, inequidad y prejuicio. Durante el proceso se examinó el lenguaje utilizado en ambos textos, eventos incluidos, eventos omitidos, y la naturaleza y detalles provistos para cada uno de ellos, entre otras características lingüísticas. El estudio sugiere que la conceptualización de la Guerra Hispano-Americana y los 54 años posteriores a la invasión estadounidense en Puerto Rico están correlacionados con la agenda política de los partidos políticos en el poder al momento de la distribución de los libros de texto analizados. Adicionalmente, exploro cómo la percepción de las relaciones políticas entre PR y EEUU pudiera participar en discursos auto-destructivos presentes en la población puertorriqueña, como han identificado otros investigadores en el campo de la psicología y la sociología.

<p> This qualitative study explored multimodal biliteracy found in the Arizona-Sonora borderland, a region thriving with linguistic and cultural diversity despite having an English-only policy. According to Reyes (2012) biliteracy is to think, speak, read, and write in two or more languages, and there are various modes for reading and writing in the 21st century (Reyes, Acosta, Fierro, Fu, &amp; Zapien, 2017). This dissertation focused on Spanish and English bilinguals. First, I present a literature review (Appendix A) informed by a sociocultural framework (Vygotsky, 1978) for understanding biliteracy as a social practice and valuing language as a resource (Ruiz, 1987). Funds of knowledge (Gonz&aacute;lez, Moll, Amanti, 2005; Moll, Gonz&aacute;lez, Amanti, &amp; Neff, 1994) is an important component in framing this qualitative study and applying methods informing an inclusive pedagogy for bilinguals. Subsequently, I go over the photographs and multimodal composition presented in two case studies of Spanish and English bilinguals. The first case study (Appendix B) documents biliteracy in the household and local community of bilinguals through photography. It contributes to previous research by Reyes, DaSilva Iddings, and Feller (2016) and the two themes from their analysis: 1) Expanding definitions of language and literacy and 2) Deepening the understanding of funds of knowledge. The second case study (Appendix C) examines how bilinguals critically and creatively expressed their Spanish and English in a multimodal composition. Thinking critically about literacy meant reflecting on their everyday reading and writing practices as bilinguals, while being creative meant thinking about the various modes of reading and writing in two languages. This moves literacy beyond a monolingual and monomodal practice into one that cultivates diversity for equity in education for bilinguals. I seek an empowering pedagogy for bilinguals by valuing and making space for linguistic and cultural diversity in the classroom. Biliteracy is a valuable contribution to class and the learning process of students with more than one language. The primary purpose of this dissertation, like funds of knowledge, was to develop critical innovations in teaching (Moll, Amanti, Neff, &amp; Gonz&aacute;lez, 1992) biliteracy for the 21st century. Findings from the photographs, multimodal compositions, written reflections, and retrospective interviews demonstrate how Spanish and English biliteracy is practiced in various modes (e.g. music, dancing, singing, traditional family recipes, and religious/spiritual altars) in the Arizona-Sonora borderland.</p><p>

<p> Teachers are being asked to implement cultural awareness into their instruction in the 21st century classroom, yet many lack the requisite knowledge and skills to accomplish this. The purpose of this inquiry was to explore the perceptions of teachers who are returned Peace Corps volunteers (RPCV) regarding what in their long-term international experience influenced them to include cultural awareness in their instruction. Bennett&rsquo;s developmental model of intercultural sensitivity and Mezirow&rsquo;s transformative learning theory were the conceptual frameworks. The research questions for this qualitative study asked how a long-term international volunteering experience impacts teachers&rsquo; pedagogy and what instructional practices RPCV teachers consider to be influenced by their Peace Corps experience. From 11 interviews, codes were identified and categorized into patterns and themes. There were three key findings. The first was that teachers who are RPCVs recognized their Peace Corps experience provided them with a deep cultural experience that brought about the realization of their own culture. The second was their recognition of their ability to adapt to cultural differences more easily than before they had their Peace Corps experience. The final finding was that RPCV teachers choose to use deep and engaging teaching practices with varied approaches, forms, styles, and subject matter in their classrooms upon their return to the United States. Given the current problem of preservice teachers entering teaching jobs with a lack of cultural understanding, these findings could contribute to positive social change by providing a practical approach for policy makers and universities to increase attention to promoting international volunteering and implementing cultural awareness in their curriculum.</p><p>

<p> This design research study examined how professional development in the context of a research practice partnership developed Algebra 1 teachers&rsquo; collective understanding of the eight Standards for Mathematical Practice (SMPs), part of the Common Core State Standards. Over two years, 15 teachers participated in a task analysis routine that included the alignment of mathematical tasks to the SMPs. Group consensus of these task ratings were analyzed quantitatively using Randolph&rsquo;s kappa, along with a measure of individual contributions to consensus that was based on calculations of pairwise agreement. Task rating discussions, which targeted disagreement in the task ratings, were analyzed qualitatively using a grounded theory approach. The analyses revealed that consensus for SMP alignment decisions increased over time. Practice 4, <i> model with mathematics</i>, was the only practice for which there was a strong consensus that tasks were aligned to a practice. When alignment to SMPs was correlated with task ratings for cognitive demand, a positive correlation existed between demand and practices one through four, but no correlation existed between demand and practices five through eight. Examination of individual raters&rsquo; contributions to SMP alignments showed differences in the use of content knowledge, use of standards definitions, and attention to alignment criteria. Teachers who attended most to the alignment criteria scored highest in their individual contributions to consensus. These findings add to Brown&rsquo;s theories of <i>design capacity for enactment</i> and <i>pedagogical design capacity</i> (2002, 2009) by arguing that curriculum alignment to academic standards is a process of perceiving affordances in curricular materials, and that the process necessarily relies on consensus interpretations of standards and socially developed criteria for alignment. The implications of this study suggest that task analysis is useful, but not sufficient for developing teachers&rsquo; understanding of the SMPs, and that the quantitative methods employed in the analysis of this study could have utility as a formative measure in other professional development and research. </p><p>

<p> Many teachers describe teaching as a vocation. Similar to a priest, rabbi, imam, nun or monk, a teacher may feel morally justified to break policy or go against curriculum that they feel is immoral or oppressive. The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which teachers resist or rebel in their classrooms when the policies or curriculum go against their beliefs. Furthermore, I aim to understand the implications of their resistance or rebellion. This study&rsquo;s findings are taken from observations and interviews with two elementary teachers. The results demonstrate that in order to help their students succeed, teachers may work around or silently disobey policy and curriculum. As this study highlights, the impact of resistance or rebellion is felt in different ways by schools, teachers, and students.</p><p>

<p> Many school districts are utilizing instructional coaches to support teachers as they implement their professional learning in the classroom. This study examined teachers&rsquo; perceptions of effective instructional coaching practices to gain insight about which aspects of instructional coaching teachers find most supportive in implementing change in the classroom. Adult learning theory, andragogy, was used as the theoretical framework guiding this study. Survey data from the Perceptions of Coaching Survey (PCS) was collected from 116 teachers across six states. These teachers were engaged in professional development on supporting English learners and were receiving follow-up coaching support from their district. Five participants were interviewed to further investigate teachers&rsquo; perceptions of coaching practices. Two maintained a month-long journal to reflect on any coaching interactions that occurred. The findings of this study revealed that teachers perceive coaching to have a positive impact in supporting the implementation of change in the classroom, and a primary theme emerged that coaching aims to improve instruction. The aspects of coaching that teachers were most satisfied with focused on implementing classroom strategies including having a coach modeling strategies in the classroom, being observed and receiving feedback from a coach, and watching fellow colleagues teaching the same things. Teachers also identified desirable qualities of coaches, including knowledge, trustworthiness, confidence, positivity, and flexibility from a supportive and consistent, non-administrative presence in the classroom. Teachers reported that what they learn from coaching applies to their current teaching situation and that coaching motivates them to try new things in the classroom. </p><p>

<p> The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of first-year teachers regarding the use of Evidence-Based Practices (EBPs) within their teacher training programs. Participants in this study included 35 teachers from one of the 46 rural public-school districts in south-central Missouri. The 43 EBPs outlined in Robert Marzano&rsquo;s (2017) <i>New Art and Science of Teaching: More than Fifty New Instructional Strategies for Academic Success</i> were used to frame the research. A survey with Likert-type statements and open-ended questions regarding EBPs taught in teacher preparation programs was completed by participants. Participants were asked to identify EBP strengths and weaknesses of their preparatory programs. Data revealed participants believed four key areas needed to be covered more in-depth within instructional programs: 1) creating and utilizing assessments, 2) classroom management strategies, 3) engaging and motivating reluctant learners, and 4) time management techniques. Participants also indicated the desire to have spent more time in classrooms completing fieldwork, as they believed this to be a valuable part of the training programs. The data suggested reflective practice of theory and classroom experience should be increased in teacher preparation programs.</p><p>

<p> Professional development (PD) can be an opportunity to address issues that commonly impede educators&rsquo; efforts to develop their professional skills; build supportive relationships; and leverage teachers&rsquo; past experience; current expectations, and future goals to impact practice and theory. However, opportunities for such learning are often limited; teachers engage in broadly disseminated in-service meetings that are divorced from individual classroom contexts, or voluntarily participate in PD seminars and workshops during the summer months, on weekends, or after school. This research asserts that <i>professional development is not a summer job</i>. Rather, PD should be <i>valuable</i> to teachers, engaging them in continuous discourse that is directly relevant to their individual classroom contexts, <i>and valued</i> by others (including administrators, accreditors, and students) who expect continued improvement among teachers in settings that tend to remain static in structure and routine. By analyzing the derivation, evolution, and iterative refinement of new design principles for <i>Participatory Professional Development</i> (PPD), this three-article dissertation explores (a) the nature of PD as a &ldquo;problem&rdquo; and the &ldquo;challenges&rdquo; that seem to hinder its reform; (b) the ways in which a Research-Practice Partnership affected its practitioner-participants, and (c) the affordances and constraints of using the Design-Based <i> Implementation</i> Research (DBIR) framework to organize intersectional professional development research. This dissertation does not intend to present Participatory Professional Development as a panacea for PD research, nor does it claim to have &ldquo;solved&rdquo; the &ldquo;professional development problem.&rdquo; Instead, it offers a new perspective on a rich field of research that may help educational stakeholders more directly support and encourage continuous and accessible professional development that is valuable and valued. PPD is one design framework. The lessons learned from its inception to its final cycle may be useful for others aiming to design professional development environments that value teacher insight and relationship building in a pragmatic, sustainable fashion.</p><p>

This thesis researches teachers as civic actors. The thesis begins with defining civic activity with the help of related terms. Next civic education is discussed first from a historical perspective and then in today’s context. The roles of socialization and schools in civic education will be contemplated in order to situate the teacher as a civic actor to a surrounding context. Teachers as civic actors are then studied from the critical pedagogy point of view and lastly from a practical perspective. In the end of the theoretical part civic activity’s role in teacher education is discussed and two examples of previous studies on teachers as civic actors are presented. The aim of the research is to study the characteristics of teachers as civic actors both from the theoretical point of view and through empirical research. The methodological choice is analysis of narratives and as data there are narratives written by teachers who have been active during their studies. It can be concluded that teachers who are civic actors promote civic activity through being a role model to their students and other people around them. These teachers are, as Giroux would define, transformative intellectuals, who are critical thinkers and active agents of change. They believe in themselves, want to influence decision-making and voice their opinions in wide societal debate. Teachers as civic actors emphasize action through their example, and encourage their students to participate as well. In practice they accomplish this by creating opportunities for being active by introducing or generating arenas for influencing. Open discussion is another important tool; these teachers inspire their students to think critically and use their voice by hosting debates and using real life references that the students can relate to. Both the theoretical and the empirical part demonstrate that civic activity is important for the growth of teachers as civic actors. The civic activity experiences of the participants have transformed them as people, but also as teachers and organizational experts. They narrate that they undeniably are better teachers today because of being active and argue that the skills they acquired through organizational activities are in use every day as teachers as well. Today civic activity still has only a tiny role in teacher education even though it should prepare teachers that will raise children and youth to become future-oriented active citizens. Based on the theory and the findings of the research it can be concluded that teacher education should have a bigger effect on the future teachers in regards to being active. Teacher education should provide for the needs of future generations by ensuring that future teachers are well equipped civic actors. Teacher students need to be introduced to various arenas of influencing in and outside the faculty by their teacher educators. More importantly, they need to be encouraged to participate in action, think critically, and have belief in their ability to influence. Today’s active teacher students are tomorrow’s teachers as civic actors. / Tämän tutkielman aiheena ovat opettajat kansalaistoimijoina. Tutkimus alkaa kansalaisvaikuttamisen määrittelemisellä lähikäsitteiden avulla. Seuraavaksi tarkastellaan kasvatusta aktiiviseen kansalaisuuteen ensin historiallisesta ja sen jälkeen nykypäivän näkökulmasta. Sosiaalistamisen ja koulujen roolia aktiiviseen kansalaisuuteen kasvattamisessa pohditaan, jotta saadaan käsitys siitä asiayhteydestä, missä opettaja kansalaistoimijana toimii. Sen jälkeen aiheeseen otetaan kriittisen pedagogiikan ja käytännön näkökulmat. Teoreettisen osan lopussa tarkastellaan kansalaisvaikuttamisen roolia opettajankoulutuksessa ja esitellään kaksi esimerkkiä aikaisemmista tutkimuksista. Tutkielman tavoitteena on tarkastella sekä teorian että empirian avulla, mitä ominaisuuksia on opettajilla, jotka ovat kansalaisvaikuttajia. Tutkimusmenetelmänä on narratiivinen analyysi ja aineistona sellaisten opettajien narratiiveja, jotka ovat olleet aktiivisia kansalaisvaikuttajia opintojensa aikana. Yhteenvetona voi sanoa, että opettajat, jotka ovat kansalaisvaikuttajia, innostavat esimerkkinsä kautta oppilaitaan ja muita ihmisiä ympärillään kansalaisvaikuttamiseen. Nämä opettajat ovat, kuten Giroux kuvaa, transformatiivisia intellektuelleja, jotka ajattelevat kriittisesti ja ovat aktiivisia muutoksen edustajia. Opettajat, jotka ovat kansalaisvaikuttajia korostavat käytännön toiminnan merkitystä ja kannustavat oppilaitaan osallistumaan. Käytännössä he luovat mahdollisuuksia aktiivisuudelle esittelemällä ja järjestämällä erilaisia vaikuttamisen kanavia. Avoin keskustelu on myös tärkeä työkalu; nämä opettajat inspiroivat oppilaitaan järjestämiensä väittelyiden avulla ajattelemaan kriittisesti ja ilmaisemaan mielipiteitään. Sekä teoreettinen, että empiirinen osa tutkielmaa osoittavat, että kansalaisvaikuttaminen on tärkeä osa kasvussa aktiivisuutta kannustavaksi opettajaksi. Osallistujien kansalaisvaikuttamiskokemukset ovat muokanneet heitä ihmisinä, mutta myös opettajina ja järjestötoimijoina. He kertovat olevansa epäilemättä parempia opettajia nyt aktiivisuutensa takia. He perustelevat, että ne taidot mitä he oppivat kansalaisvaikuttamisen kautta ovat olleet hyödyksi opettajan ammatissa. Nykyään kansalaisvaikuttamiselle on vain pieni rooli opettajankoulutuksessa, vaikka sen kuuluisi kouluttaa opettajia, jotka kasvattavat tulevaisuuden aktiivisia kansalaisia. Teorian ja tutkielman tulosten perusteella voi todeta, että opettajankoulutuksella pitäisi olla suurempi osa tulevaisuuden kansalaisvaikuttajien valmentamisessa. Opettajankoulutuksen tulisi esitellä erilaisia vaikuttamisen mahdollisuuksia ja kanavia opiskelijoille tiedekunnan sisällä ja sen ulkopuolella. Tärkeintä olisi, että opettajaopiskelijoita kannustetaan osallistumiseen ja kriittiseen ajatteluun ja saadaan heidät uskomaan, että he pystyvät vaikuttamaan. Tämän hetken aktiiviset opettajaopiskelijat ovat tulevaisuuden kansalaisvaikuttajia.