Eimeria tenella is a eukaryotic, intracellular parasite that, along with six other Eimeria species, causes coccidiosis in chickens. This disease can result in weight loss or even death and is estimated to cause 2 billion euros of damages to the chicken industry each year. While much is known of the life cycle of E. tenella in the chicken, less is known about molecular mechanisms of infection and the chicken immune response. In this study, we produced a pipeline for dual RNA-sequencing analysis of a mixed chicken and E. tenella dataset.  We then carried out an analysis on an in vitro infection of the chicken macrophage HD-11 cell line.  This was followed by a differential expression analysis across six time points, 2, 4, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours post-infection, in order to elucidate these mechanisms. The results showed clear patterns of expression for the chicken immune genes, with strong down-regulation of genes across the immune system at 24 hours and a repetition of early patterns at 72 hours, indicating that reinfection by a second generation of parasite cells was occurring. Several genes that may have important roles in the immune reaction of the chicken were identified, such as MRC2, ITGB3 and ITGA9, along with genes with known roles, such as TLR15. The expression of surface antigen genes in E. tenella was also examined, showing a clear upregulation in the late stages of merogony, suggesting important roles for merozoites. Finally, a co-expression analysis was carried out, showing considerable co-expression among the two organisms.  One of the gene co-expression networks identified appeared to be enriched with both infection specific genes from E. tenella and chicken immune genes. These results, along with the pipeline, will be used in further studies on E. tenella infections and bring us closer to the eventual goal of a vaccine for coccidiosis.

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In-vitro-Koinfektionsstudien mit Toxoplasma gondii und Eimeria tenella in primären Hühnermakrophagen Institut für Parasitologie der Veterinärmedizinischen Fakultät der Universität Leipzig Eingereicht im Feburar 2020 91 Seiten, 3 Publikationen, 2 eingreichte Manuskripte, 17 Abbildungen, 5 Tabellen, 188 Literaturangaben Schlüsselwörter: Toxoplasma gondii, Eimeria tenella, Koinfektion, Makrophagen, in vitro, Wirt-Parasit-Interaktion, Parasitenwachstum, Wirtsimmunantwort, Cell-imaging Einleitung: Toxoplasma gondii und Eimeria tenella sind intrazelluläre apikomplexe Parasiten, die in Hühnern weit verbreitet sind. Während Infektionen mit dem zoonotischen Erreger T. gondii beim Geflügel im Allgemeinen subklinisch verlaufen, kann E. tenella in Hühnerbeständen schwere Erkrankungen und wirtschaftliche Verluste verursachen. Aufgrund der hohen Seroprävalenz beider Parasiten bei Hühnern sind Koinfektionen wahrscheinlich. Hühnermakrophagen sind wichtig für die Wirtsimmunantwort gegen diese beiden Protozoen. Es ist jedoch wenig über die Wirt-Parasit- sowie Parasit-Parasit-Interaktion in Hühnermakrophagen während einer Koinfektion bekannt. Ziele der Arbeit: Ein geeignetes In-vitro-Koinfektionsmodell für T. gondii- und E. tenella-Infektionen in primären Hühnermakrophagen wurde erstellt und angewendet, um die Makrophagenantwort auf beide Parasitenarten und Koinfektionen zu untersuchen. Tiere, Material und Methoden: Von Monozyten abgeleitete Makrophagen wurden aus Hühnerblut isoliert und aufgereinigt. Eine Koinfektion mit zwei Tachyzoiten des RH-Stammes von T. gondii und zwei Sporozoiten des E. tenella-Houghton-Stammes pro Zelle wurde gleichzeitig oder nacheinander in vitro durchgeführt. Morphologische Veränderungen der Makrophagen und die Parasitenentwicklung wurden mittels Konfokalmikroskopie (CLSM) 2, 6, 12, 24, 48 und 72 Stunden nach Infektion (hpi) visualisiert. Die Parasitenvermehrung wurde evaluiert, indem die Expression des 529-bp-Fragments von T. gondii und des ITS-1-Genfragments von E. tenella durch qPCR bewertet wurden. Die Makrophagen-Phagozytose wurde durch Exposition gegenüber pH-sensitiven fluoreszierenden Biopartikeln stimuliert und durch ein dreidimensionales Modell unter Verwendung von CLSM und Imaris®-Software 2, 6, 12 und 24 hpi quantifiziert. Weiterhin wurden während der Infektion relevante Zytokine (IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, iNOS, TNF-α und IFN-γ) durch Genexpressionsanalyse 24, 48 und 72 hpi untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden die Zellinvasion durch und das Überleben von T. gondii im Verlauf einer sequentiellen Infektion evaluiert, indem Makrophagen zuvor der Infektion mit E. tenella ausgesetzt waren. Die Motilität invasiver Tachyzoiten wurde innerhalb von 20 hpi durch Live-Cell-Imaging verfolgt. Ergebnisse: Die Makrophagen zeigten eine deutliche immunologische Reaktion und Phagozytoseaktivierung ab 2 hpi. Signifikante Veränderungen der Morphologie mit erhöhter Zellvakuolisierung und -ablösung wurden ab 24 hpi während der Koinfektion beobachtet. Bei zuvor E. tenella-exponierten Makrophagen fiel auf, dass T. gondii bei hoher Motilität über 4 Stunden an der Makrophagenmembran anhaftete, bevor es zu einer Penetration kam. Ab 24 hpi vermehrten sich T. gondii in koinfizierten Makrophagen besser als E. tenella. Eine Koinfektion hemmte die Phagozytoseaktivität von Makrophagen nach 2 hpi erheblich, so dass Biopartikel nicht aufgenommen wurden (12 hpi). Mittels qPCR wurde gezeigt, dass bei sequenzieller Koinfektion 2 hpi circa 4-fach weniger T. gondii überlebten als bei Monoinfektion (P < 0,05). Die Anzahl beider Parasiten nahm während der simultanen Koinfektion zu, aber bei der sequentiellen Koinfektion war die Vermehrung von T. gondii im Vergleich zur Monoinfektion bis 24 hpi auf etwa die Hälfte reduziert. Bis 72 hpi verdoppelte sich die Anzahl von E. tenella, während T. gondii bei Koinfektion in diesem Zeitraum auf dem gleichen Niveau wie 48 hpi blieb. Die mRNA-Expression von iNOS (48 hpi), TNF-α (72 hpi) und von IL-10 (48 hpi und 72 hpi) war während der Koinfektion im Vergleich zur E. tenella Monoinfektion signifikant (P < 0,05) erhöht. Schlussfolgerungen: In dem Koinfektionsmodell wurde eine Interaktion zwischen T. gondii und E. tenella beobachtet. Zusätzlich zu den morphologischen Veränderungen und der Phagozytosehemmung der Makrophagen unterschieden sich die Parasitenvermehrung sowie die Zytokinexpression zwischen Koinfektion und Monoinfektion. E. tenella beeinträchtigt das aktive Eindringen von T. gondii in Wirtszellen, wie dies erfolgt, ist derzeit noch nicht geklärt. / In vitro co-infection studies on Toxoplasma gondii and Eimeria tenella in primary poultry macrophages Institute of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig Submitted in February 2020 91 pages, 3 publications, 2 submitted manuscripts, 17 figures, 5 tables, 188 references Keywords: Toxoplasma gondii, Eimeria tenella, co-infection, macrophages, in vitro, host-parasite interaction, parasite growth, host immune response, cell imaging. Introduction: Toxoplasma gondii and Eimeria tenella are intracellular apicomplexan parasites that are widely distributed in chicken. Whereas infections with the zoonotic pathogen T. gondii are generally subclinical in poultry, E. tenella may cause severe disease and economical loss in chicken herds. Due to the high seroprevelences with both parasites in chicken, co-infections are likely to exist. Chicken macrophages are essential in the host innate immune response against these two protozoa. However, little is known about the host-parasite and parasite-parasite interaction in chicken macrophages during co-infection. Objectives: A suitable in vitro model for both T. gondii and E. tenella infection in chicken primary macrophages was established and applied to study the course of infection in mono- or co-infection. Animals, materials and methods: Monocyte-derived macrophages were isolated and purified from chicken blood. Co-infection with two T. gondii RH strain tachyzoites and two E. tenella Houghton strain sporozoites per cell were performed simultaneously or sequentially in vitro. Morphologic alterations of macrophages and parasite development were visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) at 2, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours post infection (hpi). Parasite growth was evaluated by assessing expression of the 529-bp fragment of T. gondii and ITS-1 gene fragment of E. tenella by qPCR in parallel. Macrophage phagocytosis was stimulated by exposure to pH sensitive fluorescent bioparticles and quantified by a three-dimensional model using CLSM and Imaris® software at 2, 6, 12 and 24 hpi. Furthermore, infection-related cytokines (IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, iNOS, TNF-α and IFN-γ) were evaluated by gene expression analysis at 24, 48, 72 hpi. The course of sequential infection was evaluated to determine cell invasion and survival of T. gondii in macrophages previously exposed to E. tenella sporozoites. Motility of invasive stages was tracked at the early phase of infection (within 20 hpi) by real time life cell imaging. Results：By cell imaging, macrophages displayed distinctly immunologic activation and phagocytosis at 2 hpi and thereafter. Significant changes of morphology with increased cell vacuolation and detachment were observed on 24 hpi during co-infection. T. gondii tachyzoites adhered for more than 4 hours to host cells displaying high motility instead of cell entry during the early sequential co-infection. However, T. gondii showed better replication than E. tenella in co-infected macrophages from 24 hpi onwards. Co-infection caused inhibition of phagocytosis by macrophages and bioparticles were not incorporated into co-infected cells at 12 hpi by CLSM. By qPCR, it was shown that approximately 4-fold less T. gondii survived in sequentially co-infected cultures at 2 hpi as compared to mono-infection (P < 0.05). Replication of both parasites increased during simultaneous co-infection whereas only half numbers of replicated T. gondii was found in sequential co-infection compared to mono-infection at 24 hpi. At the end of the study period (72 hpi), E. tenella multiplication tended to double increase while T. gondii replication was not distinctly altered during co-infection compared to 48 hpi. Expression of mRNA for iNOS at 48 hpi, for TNF-α at 72 hpi and for IL-10 at 48 and 72 hpi was significantly elevated during co-infection compared to mono-infection (P < 0.05). Conclusions：Mutual interaction between T. gondii and E. tenella were observed in the selected co-infection model. Increased macrophage stress may explain vacuolization and phagocytosis inhibition. In addition to morphologic alterations of macrophages, cytokine up/down- regulation differed between co-infected and mono-infected macrophage cultures. It appears that E. tenella, impairs the active penetration of T. gondii into host cells which deserves further study. The established in vitro infection model may serve to investigate host immune response of macrophages to diverse intracellular pathogens that infect chicken.

O ambiente marinho desponta como uma fonte natural importante devido à sua fantástica diversidade orgânica, que permanece praticamente inexplorada. Abordagens químicas e biológicas de organismos marinhos, atualmente, representam uma área de pesquisa ampla e promissora, visto a constante descoberta de diversos metabólitos com propriedades medicinais variadas, além de um arsenal metabólico praticamente ilimitado. Algas vermelhas, com destaque para a família Rhodomelaceae, são exímias produtoras de metabólitos halogenados aos quais são atribuídos importantes atividades biológicas. Micro-organismos marinhos e/ou endofíticos são apontados como os alvos mais promissores para descoberta de novos fármacos. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho descreve a identificação de metabólitos secundários da macroalga Bostrychia tenella (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta), a qual possui poucos relatos na literatura a respeito de seu metabolismo secundário, bem como o potencial biológico de micro-organismos endofíticos associados a esta espécie. O estudo químico da espécie B. tenella coletada nos costões rochosos da Praia da Fortaleza (Ubatuba-SP) proporcionou a identificação, por meio de análises via CG-EM (fração acetato), de 63 metabólitos dos quais 39 são substâncias apolares de cadeias carbônicas longas (ex. ácidos graxos e ésteres, esteróides, dentre outros) e 24 são metabólitos fenólicos, incluindo 17 halofenóis clorados, bromados e iodados. Destas 24 substâncias, até o presente momento, três são inéditas, nove são inéditas como produtos naturais, quatro são inéditas em algas marinhas e seis são inéditas para o gênero Bostrychia. Adicionalmente, 45 linhagens de micro-organismos endofíticos foram isoladas da alga Bostrychia tenella, das quais 10 foram cultivadas em meio sólido arroz, proporcionando a obtenção de extratos brutos e frações orgânicas. Apesar das frações de B. tenella não terem exibido atividade biológica, extratos e frações dos micro-organismos endofíticos associados a esta espécie apresentaram-se ativos em todos os ensaios realizados: citotoxicidade utilizando células tumorais HL-60, HCT-8 e SF-295, antifúngico utilizando fitopatógenos Cladosporium cladosporioides e C. sphaerospermum, antibacteriano utilizando Staphylococcus aureus e Klebsiella pneumoniae, e inibição da degranulação mastocitária utilizando células RBL-2H3. O presente trabalho contribuiu para aumento do conhecimento sobre o metabolismo secundário da alga Bostrychia tenella e proporcionou a descoberta do potencial biológico de micro-organismos endofíticos associados a esta alga, atribuindo a esta espécie relevância química e microbiológica para o estudo de produtos naturais marinhos. / The marine environment appears as an important natural source due to its fantastic organic diversity, which practically remains unexplored. Chemical and biological approaches concerning marine organism, currently, represent an ample and promising research area, since there are a constant metabolite discovery with a variety of medicinal properties, besides the limitless metabolic armory. Red seaweeds, with distinction for the Rhodomelaceae family, are exempt of halogenated metabolites producers which are attributed important biological activities. Marine and/or endophytic microorganisms are pointed as the most promising targets with respect to discovery of new pharmaceuticals. In this context, the present work describes the secondary metabolites identification from seaweed Bostrychia tenella (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta), as well as the biological potential of associated endophytic microorganisms. The chemical study of B. tenella species collected in the rocky shore of Praia de Fortaleza (Ubatuba-SP) provided the identification, by means of GC-MS analyses (acetate fraction), of 63 metabolites, which 39 consisted of nonpolar substances containing a long carbonic chains (fatty acids, esters, steroids, amongst others) and 24 were phenolic compounds, including 17 chlorinated, bromated and iodized halophenols. Related to these 24 substances, until the present moment, three are unknown, nine are unknown as natural products, four are unknown in seaweeds and six are unknown in the Bostrychia genus. Additionally, 45 endophytic microorganism strains had been isolated from B. tenella, from which 10 were cultivated in solid rice medium, providing several crude extracts and fractions. Although the B. tenella fractions did not show biological potential, extracts and fractions from endophytic microorganism associates to this species presented biological activity in all of evaluated assays: cytotoxicity using tumor cells HL-60, HCT-8 and SF-295, antifungal in Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. sphaerospermum, antibacterial using Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and mast cell degranulation inhibition using RBL-2H3 cells. The present work contributed for the secondary metabolism knowledge increase regarding Bostrychia tenella species, and demonstrated the endophytic microorganism biological potential, attributing to this species chemical and microbiological relevance for the marine natural products research.

O ambiente marinho desponta como uma fonte natural importante devido à sua fantástica diversidade orgânica, que permanece praticamente inexplorada. Abordagens químicas e biológicas de organismos marinhos, atualmente, representam uma área de pesquisa ampla e promissora, visto a constante descoberta de diversos metabólitos com propriedades medicinais variadas, além de um arsenal metabólico praticamente ilimitado. Algas vermelhas, com destaque para a família Rhodomelaceae, são exímias produtoras de metabólitos halogenados aos quais são atribuídos importantes atividades biológicas. Micro-organismos marinhos e/ou endofíticos são apontados como os alvos mais promissores para descoberta de novos fármacos. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho descreve a identificação de metabólitos secundários da macroalga Bostrychia tenella (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta), a qual possui poucos relatos na literatura a respeito de seu metabolismo secundário, bem como o potencial biológico de micro-organismos endofíticos associados a esta espécie. O estudo químico da espécie B. tenella coletada nos costões rochosos da Praia da Fortaleza (Ubatuba-SP) proporcionou a identificação, por meio de análises via CG-EM (fração acetato), de 63 metabólitos dos quais 39 são substâncias apolares de cadeias carbônicas longas (ex. ácidos graxos e ésteres, esteróides, dentre outros) e 24 são metabólitos fenólicos, incluindo 17 halofenóis clorados, bromados e iodados. Destas 24 substâncias, até o presente momento, três são inéditas, nove são inéditas como produtos naturais, quatro são inéditas em algas marinhas e seis são inéditas para o gênero Bostrychia. Adicionalmente, 45 linhagens de micro-organismos endofíticos foram isoladas da alga Bostrychia tenella, das quais 10 foram cultivadas em meio sólido arroz, proporcionando a obtenção de extratos brutos e frações orgânicas. Apesar das frações de B. tenella não terem exibido atividade biológica, extratos e frações dos micro-organismos endofíticos associados a esta espécie apresentaram-se ativos em todos os ensaios realizados: citotoxicidade utilizando células tumorais HL-60, HCT-8 e SF-295, antifúngico utilizando fitopatógenos Cladosporium cladosporioides e C. sphaerospermum, antibacteriano utilizando Staphylococcus aureus e Klebsiella pneumoniae, e inibição da degranulação mastocitária utilizando células RBL-2H3. O presente trabalho contribuiu para aumento do conhecimento sobre o metabolismo secundário da alga Bostrychia tenella e proporcionou a descoberta do potencial biológico de micro-organismos endofíticos associados a esta alga, atribuindo a esta espécie relevância química e microbiológica para o estudo de produtos naturais marinhos. / The marine environment appears as an important natural source due to its fantastic organic diversity, which practically remains unexplored. Chemical and biological approaches concerning marine organism, currently, represent an ample and promising research area, since there are a constant metabolite discovery with a variety of medicinal properties, besides the limitless metabolic armory. Red seaweeds, with distinction for the Rhodomelaceae family, are exempt of halogenated metabolites producers which are attributed important biological activities. Marine and/or endophytic microorganisms are pointed as the most promising targets with respect to discovery of new pharmaceuticals. In this context, the present work describes the secondary metabolites identification from seaweed Bostrychia tenella (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta), as well as the biological potential of associated endophytic microorganisms. The chemical study of B. tenella species collected in the rocky shore of Praia de Fortaleza (Ubatuba-SP) provided the identification, by means of GC-MS analyses (acetate fraction), of 63 metabolites, which 39 consisted of nonpolar substances containing a long carbonic chains (fatty acids, esters, steroids, amongst others) and 24 were phenolic compounds, including 17 chlorinated, bromated and iodized halophenols. Related to these 24 substances, until the present moment, three are unknown, nine are unknown as natural products, four are unknown in seaweeds and six are unknown in the Bostrychia genus. Additionally, 45 endophytic microorganism strains had been isolated from B. tenella, from which 10 were cultivated in solid rice medium, providing several crude extracts and fractions. Although the B. tenella fractions did not show biological potential, extracts and fractions from endophytic microorganism associates to this species presented biological activity in all of evaluated assays: cytotoxicity using tumor cells HL-60, HCT-8 and SF-295, antifungal in Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. sphaerospermum, antibacterial using Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and mast cell degranulation inhibition using RBL-2H3 cells. The present work contributed for the secondary metabolism knowledge increase regarding Bostrychia tenella species, and demonstrated the endophytic microorganism biological potential, attributing to this species chemical and microbiological relevance for the marine natural products research.

Coccidiosis is a disease caused by protozoa of the genus Eimeria ssp. These protozoa are intracellular parasites of enterocytes that rupture the host cell, causing damage to the intestinal mucosa. The lesions caused by Eimeria reduce nutrient uptake by broilers, affecting their productivity gain, and also represent a portal of entry for other enteropathogens. The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between lesions caused by Eimeria and the prevalence of coccidiosis and other gastrointestinal disorders among broilers reared in Brazil from 2012 to 2014. Intestinal health was evaluated at 82 poultry houses in Brazil, totaling 5,528 birds aged 12 to 40 days. The rearing period was divided into two phases: phase 1 (12 to 21 days) and phase 2 (22 to 40 days). The broilers, at least three per shed, were collected from three different sites. The following gastrointestinal aspects were analyzed in the present study: presence of cell desquamation, excess fluid, excess mucus, ingestion of contaminated litter, thickened intestinal walls, thin intestinal walls, movement of food bolus, abnormal intestinal tonus, Turkish towel appearance, verminosis, and necrotic enteritis. The classification of the scores for gross lesions caused by Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, and Eimeria tenella followed the method proposed by Johnson & Reid, [8] and the oocyst count of E. maxima (E. maxima micro) in the mucosa was performed under a light microscope at 100X magnification. The statistical analysis of the Pearson correlation coefficient was carried out by the SAS 9.3 software program [16], using a 95% confidence interval. The results of this study revealed that E. acervulina was the most prevalent (mean of 13.5%) species in both rearing stages. Also, there was a positive correlation with thin intestinal walls and abnormal intestinal tonus in phases 1 and 2, as well as a positive correlation with ingestion of contaminated litter in phase 2. The second highest prevalence was that of E. maxima (mean of 6.75%), with a positive correlation with excess mucus, thickened and thin intestinal walls in phase 1, and a positive correlation with cell desquamation, excess fluid, and Turkish towel appearance in phase 2. E. tenella yielded the lowest prevalence rates (mean of 4.35) among the analyzed Eimeria species, showing a positive correlation with excess fluid in phases 1 and 2 and with thickened intestinal walls and lesions caused by E. maxima in phase 2. The microscopic analysis demonstrated that E. maxima was found in 18% of mucosal scrapings in phase 1, which accounts for a subclinical coccidiosis rate of 282.98% compared with clinical coccidiosis. A positive correlation was observed for E. maxima micro between thickened intestinal walls and lesions caused by E. maxima. E. maxima was detected in mucosal scrapings of 29.6% of the broilers in phase 2, accounting for a subclinical coccidiosis rate of 236.37% compared with clinical coccidiosis. E. maxima micro revealed a positive correlation with excess fluid, necrotic enteritis, E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella in phase 2. The comparison between the rearing periods showed that subclinical coccidiosis affected 64.45% more broilers in phase 2 than in phase 1. In the gross analysis, E. acervulina was the most prevalent species in both rearing periods. A lesion score equal to 1 was the most frequent among all Eimeria species. Subclinical coccidiosis affected a significant number of broilers in the analyzed Brazilian flocks, and was correlated with several factors that reduce intestinal health. It may be concluded that monitoring is of utmost importance to find out the status of intestinal health of poultry. The microscopic detection of E. maxima (mean of 23.8%) is correlated with factors that negatively affect intestinal health. / A coccidiose é uma enfermidade causada por protozoários do gênero Eimeria ssp. Esses são parasitas intracelulares de enterócitos que rompem a célula hospedeira causando lesões na mucosa intestinal. As lesões causadas pelas Eimerias resultam em redução na capacidade de absorção de nutrientes, afetando o ganho produtivo dos frangos de corte, e representam uma porta de entrada para outros enteropatógenos. Sendo assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi analisar a correlação entre as lesões causadas pelas Eimerias, e a prevalência de coccidiose e de demais alterações encontradas no trato gastrointestinal de frangos de corte produzidos, no Brasil, no período de 2012 a 2014. As avaliações da saúde intestinal foram realizadas em 82 integrações de frangos de corte, no Brasil, totalizando 5.528 aves analisadas com idades entre 12 e 40 dias. O período de produção analisado foi dividido em duas fases: 1ª fase (12 aos 21 dias) e 2ª fase (22 aos 40 dias). Os frangos necropsiados foram coletados em três diferentes pontos e no mínimo três aves por galpão. No presente estudo foram analisadas as seguintes alterações do trato gastrintestinal: presença de descamação celular, excesso de fluido, excesso de muco, ingestão de cama, intestino espesso, intestino fino, passagem de alimento, tônus alterado, toalha turca, verminose e enterite necrótica. A definição dos escores macroscópicos de lesão causados pelas Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, Eimeria tenella seguiram a metodologia de Johnson & Reid [8], e a contagem de oocistos na mucosa para E. maxima (E. maxima micro) foi realizada com auxílio de microscópio óptico com aumento de 100 X. A análise estatística do coeficiente de correlação de Pearson foi feita com o programa SAS 9.3., com intervalo de confiança de 95%. Os resultados desse estudo demonstraram que a espécie E. acervulina foi a que apresentou maior prevalência (média de 13,5%) em ambas as fases de produção avaliadas. Ainda, referente à E. acervulina, observou-se correlação positiva com intestino fino e tônus intestinal alterado na 1ª e 2ª fase, bem como correlação positiva com ingestão de cama apenas na 2ª fase. A segunda maior prevalência foi da espécie E. maxima (média de 6,75%), obteu-se correlação positiva com excesso de muco, intestino espesso e fino na 1a fase e correlação positiva com descamação celular, excesso de fluído e toalha turca na 2a fase avaliada. A E. tenella representou a menor prevalência (média de 4,35) entre as espécies de Eimerias analisadas, apresentando uma correlação positiva na 1ª e 2ª fase com o excesso de fluído e na 2ª fase com o intestino espesso e com lesões de E. maxima. Na avaliação microscópica, a E. maxima esteve presente em 18% dos raspados de mucosa realizados na 1ª fase, o que representa uma coccidiose subclínica de 282,98% com relação a coccidiose clínica. Para a E. maxima micro foi detectada correlação positiva entre os achados com o intestino espesso e com as lesões de E. maxima. Na 2ª fase, E. maxima foi encontrada nos raspados de mucosa de 29,6% das aves, representando uma coccidiose subclínica de 236,37% com relação à coccidiose clínica. A E. maxima micro apresentou na 2ª fase uma correlação positiva com o excesso de fluido, enterite necrótica, E. acervulina, E. maxima e E. tenella. Na análise comparativa entre os períodos, a coccidiose subclínica acometeu 64,45% mais frangos de corte na 2ª fase em relação a 1ª fase. Na avaliação macroscópia de lesões relacionadas à coccidiose, a E. acervulina foi a espécie de maior prevalência em ambas fases de produção. O escore de lesão mais frequente para todas as espécies de Eimerias foi o de grau 1. A coccidiose subclínica acometeu um número expressivo de frangos de corte do plantel brasileiro e foi correlacionada com diversos fatores de diminuição de saúde intestinal. Concluiu-se que o monitoramento é de suma importância para conhecer o status de saúde intestinal dos lotes avícolas. Pois, a E. maxima microscópica está presente (média de 23,8%) com correlação aos fatores que reduzem a saúde intestinal.

Coccidiosis in chicken causes great economic losses. Increasing resistance of Eimeria species to anticoccidials has forced the search for alternative methods of control. The present study evaluates the anticoccidial activity of some anti-Eimeria tenella antibody fragments expressed in pea plants. Both in vitro and in vivo infection assays including indirect immunofluorescence, in vivo evaluation of antibody neutralization and cell culture invasion-inhibition assays were used to study the inhibitory effect of these antibody fragments on E. tenella sporozoites. Seven of nine antibody fragments (Ab1, Ab4, Ab5, Ab6, Ab7, Ab8 and Ab9) showed binding to sporozoites of E. tenella in an indirect immunofluorescence test. Only two antibodies (Ab4 and Ab5) cross reacted with sporozoites of E. maxima, E. acervulina and E. brunetti. The localization of specific fluorescence differed between species. Ab binding with sporozoites was seen in the area of both anterior and posterior refractile bodies in case of E. tenella, E. brunetti, and E. maxima but was only observed in the posterior refractile body in case of E. acervulina. No antibody binding was observed on merozoites. The suitability of antibody fragments to alter the infectivity of E. tenella sporozoites to Madin Darby Bovine Kidney cells (MDBK) was examined in vitro and the invasion-inhibition rates were quantified by flow cytometry. To assess the inhibitory effect on parasite reproduction, the in vivo antibody neutralization assay was done by retrograde infection of chicken with sporozoites previously incubated with antibody fragments. In vitro invasion rates were reduced by incubation with antibody fragments by approximately 24 to 45 %, with Ab6 and Ab7 showing the most distinct effect. However, proliferation rates (PR) of the respective MDBK cultures were also clearly reduced by 15 to 26 %. PR of MDBK cells treated with 1:1000, 1:100, 1:10 and undiluted mixed antibody fragments were reduced by 1%, 10%, 16%, and 26% with a reduction of invasion rates by 0%, 9%, 15% and 18%, respectively. Immune sera reduced the invasion rates by 16% to 70% and increased PR of the host cells. It appeared that the preparations of the antibody fragments contained compounds cytotoxic to MDBK cells and thus invasion inhibition could not be unequivocally evaluated in vitro. However, after incubation with antibody fragments sporozoites displayed a reduced ability to reproduce after intracloacal application to chicken (especially Ab1, Ab3, Ab5 and Ab9). Other antibody fragments (Ab2, Ab4, Ab6, Ab7 and Ab8) were less capable to reduce sporozoite infectivity and reproduction. More investigations are still required to study the possible use of antibody fragments and their application to infected chicken exposed to coccidiosis.

Zusammenfassung Einleitung: Eimeria tenella ist ein obligat intrazellulärer Parasit und Erreger der Blinddarmkokzidiose beim Huhn. Aufgrund des verbreiteten Einsatzes von Antikokzidia sind seit langem Resistenzentwicklungen bekannt. Die zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen sind komplex und nicht genau bekannt. Für den Nachweis von Resistenz gilt der Tierversuch als „Goldstandard“, er ist aber aufwändig, zeitraubend und ethisch problematisch. Ziele der Arbeit: Es sollte ein für die Erstellung von Sensitivitätsprofilen und Wirksamkeitsprüfungen geeignetes In-vitro-Modell für E. tenella entwickelt und validiert werden. Weiterhin sollte auf mit Antikokzidiaresistenz assoziierte Änderungen im Proteom von Kokzidien untersucht werden. Material, und Methoden: Monolayer von MDBK (Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells) dienten zur Kultivierung von E. tenella für den in vitro ASA (anticoccidial sensitivity assay). Als Parameter wurden die Inhibition (%ISIA, %IRIA) der Invasion durch Sporozoiten (SIA = sporozoite invasion inhibition assay) und der Erregerreproduktion (RIA = reproduction inhibition assay) mittels quantitativer PCR (qPCR) für E. tenella beurteilt. Die minimale Hemmkonzentration (MIC = minimal inhibitory concentration) wurde anhand einer Referenz (sensitiver Laborstamm Houghton, Ref-1) für Monensin (Mon), Salinomycin (Sal), Maduramicin (Mad), Lasalocid (Las) und Toltrazuril (Tol) bestimmt. Auf dieser Basis wurden ein zweiter Laborstamm (Wisconsin, Ref-2) und vier Feldstämme (T-376, FS-1, FS-2 und FS-3) im SIA und RIA getestet. 1.0 × 105 (SIA) und 5.0 × 104 (RIA) Sporozoiten/Well wurden verwendet. Die in vitro Ergebnisse wurden mit den in vivo Daten verglichen. Alle in vitro Versuche wurden in vier Replikaten durchgeführt. Insgesamt wurden 420 Hühner (1. Lebenstag: LT, Cobb-500) in fünf Tierversuche verwendet, um die Empfindlichkeit der E. tenella-Stämme gegen verschiedene Antikokzidia zu untersuchen. In jedem Tierversuch wurden 84 Tiere (12. LT) in 7 Gruppe (n = 12) eingeteilt. Hühner wurden mit 7,5 × 104 Oozysten je Tier am 14. LT infiziert. Die Wirksamkeitsprüfung für den alternativen Naturstoff Allicin erfolgte mittels RIA am Stamm Ref-1. Kontinuierlich in vitro als Tachyzoiten kultivierte T. gondii des RH-Stammes (Sen-RH) wurden unter ansteigenden Mon-Dosen in HFF-Zellen (human foreskin fibroblasts) über 8 Monate auf Resistenz (MonR-RH) selektiert. Es erfolgte eine stabile Isotopenmarkierung (SILAC). Für E. tenella wurden die sensitivenReferenzstämme ebenso wie die Feldstämme variabler Sensitivität isoabarisch-chemisch markiert (Tandem-Massenmarkierung, TMT). Die quantitativen Proteomanalysen erfolgten mit dem nanoUPLC-MS/MS. Ergebnisse: Für Ref-1 betrugen die MIC95 (MIC für eine 95%ige Inhibition) 0,25 (Mon), 0,5 (Sal), 1,0 (Mad), 0,5 (Las) und 5,0 (Tol) μg/ml. Die in vitro Sensitivitätsprofile für Ref-2, FS-1, FS-2, und FS-3 stimmten für die Ionophoren mit den Ergebnissen des Tierversuchs gut überein, für Tol war das aber nicht der Fall. Signifikante Korrelationen wurden für die %IRIA-Werte mit dem Oozystenindex (OI, r = 0,290-0,507; p < 0,05), dem lesion score (LS, r = 0,279-0,345; p < 0.05, für Ref-1, Ref-2 und FS-1) und der Gewichtszunahme im Tierversuch (WGNNC, r = 0.284-0.419; p < 0.05, für Ref-1 und FS-1) festgestellt. Allicin in einer Konzentration von 1,8 mg/ml ergab einen %IRIA von 99,0%, was einer guten Wirkung entspricht. Mittels SILAC wurden 1820 Proteine identifiziert, von denen 1024 Proteine in mehr als vier biologischen Replikaten quantifizierbar waren. Bei 52 Proteinen wurden signifikante Unterschiede zwischen Sen-RH und MonR-RH festgestellt (p < 0,05). Actin, beta-Tubulin cofactor D, Perforin-like Protein 1 (PLP1), und kleine GTPase-vermittelte Signaltransduktionsproteine (GTPases) wurden in T. gondii MonR-RH hochreguliert (p < 0,05). Insgesamt waren 42 Proteine bei der resistenten Mutante MonR-RH hochreguliert. Für E. tenella wurden 97 Proteine identifiziert und 25 Proteine wurden in allen drei biologischen Replikaten quantifiziert. Mon-resistente E. tenella zeigten signifikant hochreguliertes Actin (p < 0,05). Mikronemenproteine wurden in resistenten Toxoplasma (MIC8) und Eimeria (MIC4) herunter reguliert. Schlussfolgerungen: Das entwickelte In-vitro-Verfahren in Kombination mit der qPCR eignet sich zur Bewertung der Sensitivität von E. tenella gegenüber ionophoren Antikokzidia und erbringt Ergebnisse, die mit dem Tierversuch korrelieren. Das Modell kann Tierversuche zum Screening von Wirkstoffen reduzieren, aber nicht vollständig ersetzen, vor allem, wenn die Wirkung (auch) späte Entwicklungsstadien im Zyklus von E. tenella betrifft. Letzteres könnte die mangelnde Aussagekraft für Tol erklären. In T. gondii lässt sich Resistenz in vitro induzieren. Die Proteom-Analyse zeigte eine Verminderung der Invasion (↑ Actin, ↓ MIC8) und des Austritts (↓ PLP1), und eine Aktivierung der Replikation (↑ Actin, ↑ beta-Tubulin cofactor D, und ↑ GTPases proteine). Mon führt zu einer Erhöhung des intrazellulären Na+ gefolgt von einer Erhöhung der Ca++ Konzentrationen. Die Reduzierung der Expression von Proteinen in MonR-RH, die mit Invasion- und Austrittsaktivitäten zusammenhängen, zeigt an, dass dieser Stamm höhere Konzentrationen von Mon verträgt, indem er die ktitische Schwelle der zytosolischen Ca++ Konzentration erhöht ist, die erforderlich ist, um diese Prozesse zu provozieren.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:29:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-12-07Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:39:32Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 barbosa_cem_me_ilha.pdf: 3252666 bytes, checksum: 5ed84bdba3406642c0acdb9f70962098 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Nas últimas décadas o sistema de plantio direto tem sido adotado pela maioria dos produtores de grãos na região dos cerrados, mas nesse tipo de sistema de cultivo, tem-se notado um grande questionamento quanto ao melhor tipo de cultura para se fazer palhada e acumular massa seca sobre a superfície do solo e a melhor época para a semeadura destas após a retirada da cultura comercial. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o comportamento de quatro culturas de entressafra: sorgo granífero AG 1040 (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), crotalária (Crotalaria juncea L.), milheto BN2 (Penisetum americanum L.) e braquiarão (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu), e uma área em pousio (vegetação espontânea), semeadas em duas épocas (27/03 e 23/04/2008), visando à produção de palha, constituição química destas, o recobrimento do solo pela palha e seus efeitos sobre o aparecimento de plantas daninhas, em região de inverno seco e seus reflexos na cultura da soja em sucessão, semeada no Sistema Plantio Direto. O trabalho foi desenvolvido no período de março/08 a abril/09, na área experimental da FE/UNESP, localizada no município de Selvíria – MS (51º22'W e 20º22'S, com 335m altitude), em Latossolo Vermelho Distrófico. O delineamento experimental foi o de blocos casualizados com oito repetições. As avaliações de massa seca da parte aérea das culturas de cobertura foram realizadas próximo ao ponto de colheita do sorgo (103 dias após a semeadura). Em seguida, todas as parcelas foram manejadas química e mecanicamente, com a finalidade de acamar as plantas utilizando apenas trator sem implemento. Em sucessão foi cultivada a cultura da soja. Foram feitas as seguintes avaliações nas culturas de cobertura: produção de massa verde e seca; teor de macro e micronutrientes da massa seca obtida; porcentagem de recobrimento do solo no período entre o manejo... / In recent decades the usage of no tillage has been adopted by most producers of grain in Cerrado region, but in this type of cultivation, has noticed a great question about the best crop type of straw production and dry matter earning on the soil surface, associated to these facts, the best season for sowing these crops after the withdrawal of the commercial crop. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the behavior of four different no-season cover crops: grain sorghum AG 1040 (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.), pearl millet BN2 (Penisetum americanum L.) and brachiaria (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu) and an area with weeds (fallow), sown in two periods (27/03 e 23/04/2008), for the straw production, chemical constitution, soil covering and its effetcs on weeds appearance and its effects on the soybean crop in succession sowing in no tillage system. This study was carried out in the period of march/08 the april/09 in the experimental area of FE/UNESP, located in the Selvíria county, in Mato Grosso do Sul State, (51º22'W and 20º22'S, with 335m altitude), Brazil, in an Oxisol. The experimental design was a randomized blocks with eight repetitions. The evaluation of cover crops dry mass was made near of the sorghum harvest point (103 days after sowing). Then, all the plots were managed chemically and mechanically, with the purpose of just lodging de cover crops, using only a tractor without any implement. In sucession the soybean was sowed. The following evaluations on the cover crops were made: production of fresh and dry matter, dry matter nutrient content, soil covering percentage between de period of the cover crops management and the soybean sowing and weeds infestation. In the soybean crop, it was evaluated the nutrient content on the leaves and agronomic traits (plant height, height of the first pod insertion, number of pods/plant), plant population, mass... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Coccidiosis in chicken causes great economic losses. Increasing resistance of Eimeria species to anticoccidials has forced the search for alternative methods of control. The present study evaluates the anticoccidial activity of some anti-Eimeria tenella antibody fragments expressed in pea plants. Both in vitro and in vivo infection assays including indirect immunofluorescence, in vivo evaluation of antibody neutralization and cell culture invasion-inhibition assays were used to study the inhibitory effect of these antibody fragments on E. tenella sporozoites. Seven of nine antibody fragments (Ab1, Ab4, Ab5, Ab6, Ab7, Ab8 and Ab9) showed binding to sporozoites of E. tenella in an indirect immunofluorescence test. Only two antibodies (Ab4 and Ab5) cross reacted with sporozoites of E. maxima, E. acervulina and E. brunetti. The localization of specific fluorescence differed between species. Ab binding with sporozoites was seen in the area of both anterior and posterior refractile bodies in case of E. tenella, E. brunetti, and E. maxima but was only observed in the posterior refractile body in case of E. acervulina. No antibody binding was observed on merozoites. The suitability of antibody fragments to alter the infectivity of E. tenella sporozoites to Madin Darby Bovine Kidney cells (MDBK) was examined in vitro and the invasion-inhibition rates were quantified by flow cytometry. To assess the inhibitory effect on parasite reproduction, the in vivo antibody neutralization assay was done by retrograde infection of chicken with sporozoites previously incubated with antibody fragments. In vitro invasion rates were reduced by incubation with antibody fragments by approximately 24 to 45 %, with Ab6 and Ab7 showing the most distinct effect. However, proliferation rates (PR) of the respective MDBK cultures were also clearly reduced by 15 to 26 %. PR of MDBK cells treated with 1:1000, 1:100, 1:10 and undiluted mixed antibody fragments were reduced by 1%, 10%, 16%, and 26% with a reduction of invasion rates by 0%, 9%, 15% and 18%, respectively. Immune sera reduced the invasion rates by 16% to 70% and increased PR of the host cells. It appeared that the preparations of the antibody fragments contained compounds cytotoxic to MDBK cells and thus invasion inhibition could not be unequivocally evaluated in vitro. However, after incubation with antibody fragments sporozoites displayed a reduced ability to reproduce after intracloacal application to chicken (especially Ab1, Ab3, Ab5 and Ab9). Other antibody fragments (Ab2, Ab4, Ab6, Ab7 and Ab8) were less capable to reduce sporozoite infectivity and reproduction. More investigations are still required to study the possible use of antibody fragments and their application to infected chicken exposed to coccidiosis.