Bcl-2 family members are important regulators of apoptosis, and their tampered expression is often involved in oncogenesis. Of particular importance are the levels of Bcl-2 family members in forming lymphomas. We studied two groups of murine thymic T cell lymphomas derived from either Bcl-2 or Bax overexpression in order to predict their sensitivity and resistance to treatments. While the growth rate and histological characteristics were similar for both lymphoma groups, Bax-derived lymphomas failed to undergo cell cycle arrest following radiation treatment and had frequent p53 mutations. In contrast, Bcl-2-derived lymphomas often halted proliferation following radiation delivery and rarely had p53 mutations. Bax-derived lymphomas were uniformly sensitive to treatment with 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) while all Bcl-2-derived lymphomas were resistant. This led us to hypothesize that the Bcl-2 family is involved in 2DG-induced cell death. Focusing on the mechanism of 2DG toxicity in Bax-derived lymphomas, our studies demonstrate the following: cell death involved the activation of proapoptotic Bax, was effectively blocked by anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, and was mediated, at least in part, by the BH3-only family member Bim. Based on these results, we explored whether a BH3 mimetic (ABT-737) could sensitize lymphomas to 2DG killing. Indeed, a combination of ABT-737 with 2DG enhanced killing in Bax-derived lymphomas and resensitized Bcl-2-overexpressing lymphomas to 2DG. Since both 2DG and BH3 mimetics are currently in clinical trials, understanding their killing mechanisms and optimal combinations are of potential clinical significance. The work in this dissertation demonstrates a novel role of Bcl-2 family member proteins in regulating 2DG toxicity and may predict response to 2DG treatment. The information found presents a new strategy of combining 2DG with BH3 mimetics to improve existing lymphoma therapies.

<p>Mast cells are long-lived effector cells of importance for both acute and chronic inflammations. Mast cells can be activated in many different ways, leading to the release of inflammatory mediators. In contrast to most other inflammatory cells, activated mast cells have the capacity to recover, regranulate and thereby be activated again. </p><p>In this thesis I have investigated the mechanisms involved in regulating activation-induced mast cell survival. We have found that cross-linking of FcεRI-bound IgE with an antigen (IgER-CL) induces a survival program in mast cells. Upon IgER-CL, mouse and human mast cells upregulate the pro-survival Bcl-2 family gene A1/Bfl-1. A1^-/- mast cells degranulate upon FcεRI activation but they cannot recover most likely due to the lack of A1. Sensitized and provoked A1^-/- mice exhibit lower amounts of mast cells compared to littermate controls. In contrast to mast cells, no Bfl-1 expression or survival promotion can be detected in basophils after IgER-CL. Another mast cell secretagogue, an adenosine receptor agonist, neither promoted upregulation of A1 nor survival.</p><p>Although it is well established that mast cell survival is dependent on stem cell factor (SCF), it has not been described how this process is regulated. We have found that SCF promotes survival through Akt-mediated inhibition of the forkhead transcription factor FOXO3a and its transcriptional target Bim, a BH3-only pro-apoptotic protein. SCF-treatment prevents upregulation of Bim protein expression and leads to an upregulation of Bim phosphorylation through PI3-kinase and MEK-dependent pathways. Overexpression of FOXO3a causes an upregulation of Bim and induces mast cell apoptosis, even in the presence of SCF. </p><p>Taken together, the work in this thesis demonstrates that A1/Bfl-1 and Bim play key roles in mast cell survival. These findings might be of importance in understanding the mechanisms of mast cell longevity and hence for possible new therapeutics used for mast cell-associated inflammations.</p>

Mast cells are long-lived effector cells of importance for both acute and chronic inflammations. Mast cells can be activated in many different ways, leading to the release of inflammatory mediators. In contrast to most other inflammatory cells, activated mast cells have the capacity to recover, regranulate and thereby be activated again. In this thesis I have investigated the mechanisms involved in regulating activation-induced mast cell survival. We have found that cross-linking of FcεRI-bound IgE with an antigen (IgER-CL) induces a survival program in mast cells. Upon IgER-CL, mouse and human mast cells upregulate the pro-survival Bcl-2 family gene A1/Bfl-1. A1-/- mast cells degranulate upon FcεRI activation but they cannot recover most likely due to the lack of A1. Sensitized and provoked A1-/- mice exhibit lower amounts of mast cells compared to littermate controls. In contrast to mast cells, no Bfl-1 expression or survival promotion can be detected in basophils after IgER-CL. Another mast cell secretagogue, an adenosine receptor agonist, neither promoted upregulation of A1 nor survival. Although it is well established that mast cell survival is dependent on stem cell factor (SCF), it has not been described how this process is regulated. We have found that SCF promotes survival through Akt-mediated inhibition of the forkhead transcription factor FOXO3a and its transcriptional target Bim, a BH3-only pro-apoptotic protein. SCF-treatment prevents upregulation of Bim protein expression and leads to an upregulation of Bim phosphorylation through PI3-kinase and MEK-dependent pathways. Overexpression of FOXO3a causes an upregulation of Bim and induces mast cell apoptosis, even in the presence of SCF. Taken together, the work in this thesis demonstrates that A1/Bfl-1 and Bim play key roles in mast cell survival. These findings might be of importance in understanding the mechanisms of mast cell longevity and hence for possible new therapeutics used for mast cell-associated inflammations.

Immunotherapy for cancer is a young research field progressing at high speed. The first chimera of an antibody and a signaling chain was designed by Zelig Eshhar and was later further developed to enhance existing T cell therapy by combining a single-chain fragment of an antibody with the CD3 zeta chain of the TCR complex. T cells expressing these chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) could recognize and specifically kill tumor cells. However the T cells, lacked in persistence and tumor rejection did not occur. Thus, the CAR constructs have been improved by providing the T cell with costimulatory signals promoting activation. The focus of this thesis has been to evaluate second and third generation αCD19-CAR T cells for the treatment of B cell leukemia and lymphoma. B cell tumors commonly upregulate anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2, which generates therapy resistance. In the first paper a second generation (2G) αCD19-CD28-CAR T cell was combined with the Bcl-2 family inhibitor ABT-737. ABT-737 sensitized tumor cells to CAR T cell therapy and may be an interesting clinical combination treatment. In paper II, the phenotype and function of a third generation (3G) αCD19-CD28-4-1BB-CAR T cell were evaluated. B cell-stimulated CAR T cells showed increased proliferation and an antigen-driven accumulation of CAR+ T cells. 3G CAR T cells had equal cytotoxic capacity, similar lineage, memory and exhaustion profile phenotype compared to 2G CARs. However, 3G CAR T cells proliferated better and had increased activation of intracellular signaling pathways compared to 2G CAR T cells. In paper III, αCD19-CD28-4-1BB-CAR T cells were used to stimulate immature dendritic cells leading to an upregulation of maturation markers on co-cultured dendritic cells. Hence, CAR T cells may not only directly kill the tumor cells, but may induce bystander immunity that indirectly aids tumor control. This thesis also include supplementary information about the development and implementation of protocols for GMP production of CAR T cell batches for a phase I/IIa clinical trial currently ongoing for patients with refractory B cell leukemia and lymphoma. So far, two patients have safely been treated on the lowest dose.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A toxoplasmose é uma zoonose amplamente distribuída que afeta mais de um terço da população mundial e de grande importância na saúde pública. A maioria das infecções em humanos por Toxoplasma gondii é assintomática. Entretanto, nos últimos anos, a toxoplasmose tem sido amplamente investigada uma vez que se apresenta como uma das doenças oportunistas que acometem pacientes portadores da Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS) e indivíduos transplantados. A toxoplasmose congênita pode provocar aborto ou até sérios danos ao feto provocando retardo mental e cegueira em crianças, reduzindo significativamente a qualidade de vida dos sobreviventes. Assim, a transmissão congênita pode ser muito mais importante do que se pensava. Estudos sobre a evolução da infecção por Toxoplasma gondii em diferentes tipos de células hospedeiras se fazem necessários para uma abordagem terapêutica adequada. Nesse estudo utilizamos as técnicas de imunofluorescência e imunocitoquímica ultraestrutural com o objetivo de investigar a participação de Bax e Bcl-2, proteínas da família Bcl-2 que regulam a apoptose e a dinâmica mitocondrial durante a evolução da infecção das células endoteliais de veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) por taquizoítos de T. gondii. A microscopia confocal revelou uma rede mitocondrial filamentosa marcada pelo Mito Tracker Red no citoplasma de HUVEC e após 2h de infecção essa rede se mostrou desorganizada, provavelmente por conseqüência da invasão da HUVEC pelo T. gondii. Porém, em 6h de infecção, observamos a reestruturação da rede mitocondrial no citoplasma de HUVEC que se manteve no tempo de 20h de infecção. Ainda por microscopia confocal observamos que a proteína pró-apoptótica Bax se localiza principalmente no citoplasma, na mitocôndria, e pela primeira vez foi detectada no núcleo de HUVEC. No tempo de 2h de infecção, observamos a expressão de Bax principalmente na mitocôndria. Entretanto, após 6h e 20h de infecção, essa expressão diminuiu tanto na mitocôndria quanto no citoplasma de HUVEC. A expressão de Bcl-2 não foi observada em HUVEC não infectada e infectada por 2h, 6h e 20h. Taquizoítos de T. gondii apresentaram marcação positiva para Bax e Bcl-2 ao longo de todos os tempos de infecção. A análise ultraestrutural confirmou a dinâmica mitocondrial observada por microscopia confocal durante toda a interação. Os resultados de imunocitoquímica confirmaram a expressão de Bax no núcleo de HUVEC e a expressão de Bax e Bcl-2 em taquizoítos de T. gondii isolados. Portanto, nossos resultados sugerem que o T. gondii modula a morfologia da mitocôndria e a expressão de Bax em HUVEC, interferindo possivelmente nos mecanismos de defesa das células hospedeiras, entre eles a progressão da apoptose. / Toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis widely distributed that affects over a third of world population and is of great importance on public health. Most Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans is asymptomatic. However, on recent years toxoplasmosis has been investigated since it comes as some opportunistic diseases in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and transplant patients. Congenital toxoplasmosis can cause miscarriage or serious damage to the fetus leading to mental retardation and blindness in children, significantly reducing the quality of life of survivors. Thus, congenital transmission can be much more important than previously thought. Studies on the development of Toxoplasma gondii in different host cells are necessary for an appropriate therapy. At this study we employed the immunofluorescence and ultrastructural immunocytochemical assay with the aim to investigate the involvement of Bax and Bcl-2, members of Bcl-2 family which regulate apoptosis and the mitochondrial dynamic during the infection progress of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) by tachyzoites of T. gondii. Confocal microscopy revealed a mitochondrial filamentous network stained by Mito Tracker Red within cytoplasm of HUVEC and after 2h of infection this network became desorganized, probably as a consequence of T. gondii invasion. However, at 6h of infection, we observed the restructuring of the mitochondrial network in the cytoplasm of HUVEC, which remained at the time of 20h of infection. Even by confocal microscopy we observed Bax pro-apoptotic protein located mainly in the cytoplasm, in the mitochondria, and for the first time it was detected in the nucleus of HUVEC. At the time of 2h of infection, we observed the expression of Bax mainly in mitochondria. However, after 6h and 20h of infection, this expression decreased such in mitochondria as in HUVEC cytoplasm. The Bcl-2 expression was not observed in uninfected and HUVEC infected for 2h, 6h and 20h. Tachyzoites of T. gondii presented positive labeling for Bax and Bcl-2 over all time of infection. The ultrastructural analysis confirmed the mitochondrial dynamics observed by confocal microscopy throughout the interaction. The results of immunocytochemistry confirmed Bax expression in the nucleus of HUVEC and the expression of Bax and Bcl-2 in isolated tachyzoites of T. gondii. Therefore, our results suggest that T. gondii modulates the mitochondria morphology and Bax expression in HUVEC, probably interfering on the host cells defense mechanisms, including the progression of apoptosis.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A toxoplasmose é uma zoonose amplamente distribuída que afeta mais de um terço da população mundial e de grande importância na saúde pública. A maioria das infecções em humanos por Toxoplasma gondii é assintomática. A toxoplasmose é amplamente investigada visto que se apresenta como uma doença grave em pessoas imunodeprimidas (portadores da síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida (SIDA), não tratados, indivíduos transplantados, paciente em tratamento quimioterápico ou em uso de drogas supressoras e gestantes). A toxoplasmose congênita frequentemente pode levar ao aborto espontâneo ou até mesmo resultar na formação de crianças com algum grau de atraso no desenvolvimento mental e/ou físicos, deste modo, a transmissão congênita pode ser muito mais importante do que se pensava, pois os parasitos encontrados na circulação sanguinea são capazes de infectar as células endoteliais dos vasos e os tecidos circunjacentes, podendo resultar no encistamento do T. gondii. Atualmente a toxoplasmose vem sendo investigada devido a sua associação a inúmeras outras doenças, assim, estudos sobre a evolução da infecção por T. gondii em diferentes tipos de células hospedeiras se fazem necessários para uma abordagem terapêutica adequada. Ao invadir a célula hospedeira o parasito possui a capacidade de recrutar as mitocôndrias promovendo mudanças na organização mitocondrial ao longo da progressão da infecção, garantindo um ambiente favorável a sua multiplicação. Diante disso, investigamos se o parasito possui a capacidade de interferir no metabolismo mitocondrial e na resposta apoptótica da célula endotelial. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo analisar o metabolismo mitocondrial através da respirometria de alta-resolução e da resposta apoptótica através do western blotting das células endoteliais da veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) infectadas por 2, 6 e 20 horas por taquizoítos de T. gondii. A respirometria de alta-resolução revelou que o parasito interfere no metabolismo energético da célula hospedeira. A análise do conteúdo de proteínas da família Bcl-2 por western blotting revelou maior estímulo apoptótico no tempo inicial de infecção, quando comparado aos demais tempos. Os resultados dos conteúdos de caspase 3, proteína efetora da apoptose, não demonstrou diferença nos tempos iniciais de infecção Entretanto, em tempos mais tardios, o conteúdo de caspase 3 mostrou-se significativamente aumentado quando comparado às HUVEC não infectadas. A dinâmica de replicação do parasito foi observada através do monitoramento pelo sistema Time-Lapse Nikon BioStation IMQ em tempo real das células infectadas por T.gondii. Portanto, nossos resultados sugerem que o protozoário ao recrutar as mitocôndrias da célula hospedeira interfere no metabolismo mitocondrial e na modulação da apoptose para garantir um ambiente favorável a sua multiplicação. / Toxoplasmosis is a widespread zoonosis that affects more than a third of the world population and of great public health importance. Most human infections with Toxoplasma gondii are asymptomatic. Toxoplasmosis is widely investigated since it presents itself as a serious disease in immunocompromised persons (holders of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), untreated, transplant recipients, patients undergoing chemotherapy or suppressing drugs and pregnant). Congenital toxoplasmosis can often lead to miscarriage or even result in the formation of children with some degree of developmental delay mental and / or physical, thus congenital transmission may be much more important than previously thought, because the parasites found In the bloodstream are able to infect endothelial cells of blood vessels and surrounding tissues, which may result in encystment T. gondii. Currently toxoplasmosis has been investigated because of their association with other diseases, so, studies of the evolution of T.gondii infection in different types of host cells are necessary for an adequate therapeutic approach. To invade the host cell, the parasite has the ability to recruit mitochondria promoting changes in mitochondrial organization along the progression of infection, ensuring a favorable environment for their multiplication. Therefore, we investigated whether the parasite has the ability to interfere with mitochondrial metabolism and apoptotic response of endothelial cells. This study aimed to analyze the mitochondrial metabolism by high-resolution respirometry and apoptotic response by western blotting of endothelial cells of human umbilical vein (HUVEC) infected for 2, 6 and 20 hours per tachyzoites of T. gondii. The high-resolution respirometry revealed that the parasite interferes with the energy metabolism of the host cell. The analysis of the family protein content of Bcl-2 by western blotting revealed higher apoptotic stimulus at the initial time of infection, as compared to other times. The results of the contents of caspase 3 protein effector of apoptosis, showed no difference in the initial days of infection However, in more recent times, the content of caspase 3 was significantly increased when compared to non-infected HUVEC. The dynamics of parasite replication was observed by monitoring the system Time-Lapse Nikon BioStation IMQ in real time from infected cells by T. gondii. Therefore, our findings suggest that mitochondria in recruiting protozoan host cell interfere with mitochondrial metabolism and in the modulation of apoptosis to ensure a favorable environment for multiplication.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A toxoplasmose é uma zoonose amplamente distribuída que afeta mais de um terço da população mundial e de grande importância na saúde pública. A maioria das infecções em humanos por Toxoplasma gondii é assintomática. A toxoplasmose é amplamente investigada visto que se apresenta como uma doença grave em pessoas imunodeprimidas (portadores da síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida (SIDA), não tratados, indivíduos transplantados, paciente em tratamento quimioterápico ou em uso de drogas supressoras e gestantes). A toxoplasmose congênita frequentemente pode levar ao aborto espontâneo ou até mesmo resultar na formação de crianças com algum grau de atraso no desenvolvimento mental e/ou físicos, deste modo, a transmissão congênita pode ser muito mais importante do que se pensava, pois os parasitos encontrados na circulação sanguinea são capazes de infectar as células endoteliais dos vasos e os tecidos circunjacentes, podendo resultar no encistamento do T. gondii. Atualmente a toxoplasmose vem sendo investigada devido a sua associação a inúmeras outras doenças, assim, estudos sobre a evolução da infecção por T. gondii em diferentes tipos de células hospedeiras se fazem necessários para uma abordagem terapêutica adequada. Ao invadir a célula hospedeira o parasito possui a capacidade de recrutar as mitocôndrias promovendo mudanças na organização mitocondrial ao longo da progressão da infecção, garantindo um ambiente favorável a sua multiplicação. Diante disso, investigamos se o parasito possui a capacidade de interferir no metabolismo mitocondrial e na resposta apoptótica da célula endotelial. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo analisar o metabolismo mitocondrial através da respirometria de alta-resolução e da resposta apoptótica através do western blotting das células endoteliais da veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) infectadas por 2, 6 e 20 horas por taquizoítos de T. gondii. A respirometria de alta-resolução revelou que o parasito interfere no metabolismo energético da célula hospedeira. A análise do conteúdo de proteínas da família Bcl-2 por western blotting revelou maior estímulo apoptótico no tempo inicial de infecção, quando comparado aos demais tempos. Os resultados dos conteúdos de caspase 3, proteína efetora da apoptose, não demonstrou diferença nos tempos iniciais de infecção Entretanto, em tempos mais tardios, o conteúdo de caspase 3 mostrou-se significativamente aumentado quando comparado às HUVEC não infectadas. A dinâmica de replicação do parasito foi observada através do monitoramento pelo sistema Time-Lapse Nikon BioStation IMQ em tempo real das células infectadas por T.gondii. Portanto, nossos resultados sugerem que o protozoário ao recrutar as mitocôndrias da célula hospedeira interfere no metabolismo mitocondrial e na modulação da apoptose para garantir um ambiente favorável a sua multiplicação. / Toxoplasmosis is a widespread zoonosis that affects more than a third of the world population and of great public health importance. Most human infections with Toxoplasma gondii are asymptomatic. Toxoplasmosis is widely investigated since it presents itself as a serious disease in immunocompromised persons (holders of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), untreated, transplant recipients, patients undergoing chemotherapy or suppressing drugs and pregnant). Congenital toxoplasmosis can often lead to miscarriage or even result in the formation of children with some degree of developmental delay mental and / or physical, thus congenital transmission may be much more important than previously thought, because the parasites found In the bloodstream are able to infect endothelial cells of blood vessels and surrounding tissues, which may result in encystment T. gondii. Currently toxoplasmosis has been investigated because of their association with other diseases, so, studies of the evolution of T.gondii infection in different types of host cells are necessary for an adequate therapeutic approach. To invade the host cell, the parasite has the ability to recruit mitochondria promoting changes in mitochondrial organization along the progression of infection, ensuring a favorable environment for their multiplication. Therefore, we investigated whether the parasite has the ability to interfere with mitochondrial metabolism and apoptotic response of endothelial cells. This study aimed to analyze the mitochondrial metabolism by high-resolution respirometry and apoptotic response by western blotting of endothelial cells of human umbilical vein (HUVEC) infected for 2, 6 and 20 hours per tachyzoites of T. gondii. The high-resolution respirometry revealed that the parasite interferes with the energy metabolism of the host cell. The analysis of the family protein content of Bcl-2 by western blotting revealed higher apoptotic stimulus at the initial time of infection, as compared to other times. The results of the contents of caspase 3 protein effector of apoptosis, showed no difference in the initial days of infection However, in more recent times, the content of caspase 3 was significantly increased when compared to non-infected HUVEC. The dynamics of parasite replication was observed by monitoring the system Time-Lapse Nikon BioStation IMQ in real time from infected cells by T. gondii. Therefore, our findings suggest that mitochondria in recruiting protozoan host cell interfere with mitochondrial metabolism and in the modulation of apoptosis to ensure a favorable environment for multiplication.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A toxoplasmose é uma zoonose amplamente distribuída que afeta mais de um terço da população mundial e de grande importância na saúde pública. A maioria das infecções em humanos por Toxoplasma gondii é assintomática. Entretanto, nos últimos anos, a toxoplasmose tem sido amplamente investigada uma vez que se apresenta como uma das doenças oportunistas que acometem pacientes portadores da Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS) e indivíduos transplantados. A toxoplasmose congênita pode provocar aborto ou até sérios danos ao feto provocando retardo mental e cegueira em crianças, reduzindo significativamente a qualidade de vida dos sobreviventes. Assim, a transmissão congênita pode ser muito mais importante do que se pensava. Estudos sobre a evolução da infecção por Toxoplasma gondii em diferentes tipos de células hospedeiras se fazem necessários para uma abordagem terapêutica adequada. Nesse estudo utilizamos as técnicas de imunofluorescência e imunocitoquímica ultraestrutural com o objetivo de investigar a participação de Bax e Bcl-2, proteínas da família Bcl-2 que regulam a apoptose e a dinâmica mitocondrial durante a evolução da infecção das células endoteliais de veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) por taquizoítos de T. gondii. A microscopia confocal revelou uma rede mitocondrial filamentosa marcada pelo Mito Tracker Red no citoplasma de HUVEC e após 2h de infecção essa rede se mostrou desorganizada, provavelmente por conseqüência da invasão da HUVEC pelo T. gondii. Porém, em 6h de infecção, observamos a reestruturação da rede mitocondrial no citoplasma de HUVEC que se manteve no tempo de 20h de infecção. Ainda por microscopia confocal observamos que a proteína pró-apoptótica Bax se localiza principalmente no citoplasma, na mitocôndria, e pela primeira vez foi detectada no núcleo de HUVEC. No tempo de 2h de infecção, observamos a expressão de Bax principalmente na mitocôndria. Entretanto, após 6h e 20h de infecção, essa expressão diminuiu tanto na mitocôndria quanto no citoplasma de HUVEC. A expressão de Bcl-2 não foi observada em HUVEC não infectada e infectada por 2h, 6h e 20h. Taquizoítos de T. gondii apresentaram marcação positiva para Bax e Bcl-2 ao longo de todos os tempos de infecção. A análise ultraestrutural confirmou a dinâmica mitocondrial observada por microscopia confocal durante toda a interação. Os resultados de imunocitoquímica confirmaram a expressão de Bax no núcleo de HUVEC e a expressão de Bax e Bcl-2 em taquizoítos de T. gondii isolados. Portanto, nossos resultados sugerem que o T. gondii modula a morfologia da mitocôndria e a expressão de Bax em HUVEC, interferindo possivelmente nos mecanismos de defesa das células hospedeiras, entre eles a progressão da apoptose. / Toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis widely distributed that affects over a third of world population and is of great importance on public health. Most Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans is asymptomatic. However, on recent years toxoplasmosis has been investigated since it comes as some opportunistic diseases in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and transplant patients. Congenital toxoplasmosis can cause miscarriage or serious damage to the fetus leading to mental retardation and blindness in children, significantly reducing the quality of life of survivors. Thus, congenital transmission can be much more important than previously thought. Studies on the development of Toxoplasma gondii in different host cells are necessary for an appropriate therapy. At this study we employed the immunofluorescence and ultrastructural immunocytochemical assay with the aim to investigate the involvement of Bax and Bcl-2, members of Bcl-2 family which regulate apoptosis and the mitochondrial dynamic during the infection progress of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) by tachyzoites of T. gondii. Confocal microscopy revealed a mitochondrial filamentous network stained by Mito Tracker Red within cytoplasm of HUVEC and after 2h of infection this network became desorganized, probably as a consequence of T. gondii invasion. However, at 6h of infection, we observed the restructuring of the mitochondrial network in the cytoplasm of HUVEC, which remained at the time of 20h of infection. Even by confocal microscopy we observed Bax pro-apoptotic protein located mainly in the cytoplasm, in the mitochondria, and for the first time it was detected in the nucleus of HUVEC. At the time of 2h of infection, we observed the expression of Bax mainly in mitochondria. However, after 6h and 20h of infection, this expression decreased such in mitochondria as in HUVEC cytoplasm. The Bcl-2 expression was not observed in uninfected and HUVEC infected for 2h, 6h and 20h. Tachyzoites of T. gondii presented positive labeling for Bax and Bcl-2 over all time of infection. The ultrastructural analysis confirmed the mitochondrial dynamics observed by confocal microscopy throughout the interaction. The results of immunocytochemistry confirmed Bax expression in the nucleus of HUVEC and the expression of Bax and Bcl-2 in isolated tachyzoites of T. gondii. Therefore, our results suggest that T. gondii modulates the mitochondria morphology and Bax expression in HUVEC, probably interfering on the host cells defense mechanisms, including the progression of apoptosis.

Les protéines BCL-2 jouent un rôle essentiel dans la décision de vie ou de mort des cellules. Elles contrôlent l'induction de l'apoptose (mort cellulaire programmée) par la voie mitochondriale via des fonctions opposées de régulateurs anti- et pro-apoptotiques. Les protéines contenant un ou plusieurs domaines dits d'homologie à Bcl-2 (BHl- 4) sont systématiquement classées dans cette famille. Grâce à une analyse bioinformatique et phylogénétique, nous avons revisité les différents critères d'inclusion dans le groupe de protéines BCL-2 et proposé une nouvelle classification tenant compte des données structurales et évolutives. Cette nouvelle nomenclature distingue : un premier groupe de protéines homologues (dérivant d'un ancêtre commun), partageant une structure 3D semblable à celle de Bcl-2 et pouvant ne posséder aucun motif BH, et un conglomérat, en pleine expansion, regroupant des protéines sans lien phylogénétique apparent et partageant une courte région de similarité de séquence correspondant au motif BH3. Sur la base de ces résultats, nous avons construit un processus, basé sur des profils HMM, pour identifier les protéines appartenant au groupe de protéines BCL-2. Notre processus automatisé est utilisé pour i) récupérer les séquences nucléotidiques et protéiques mensuellement ii) les annoter et iii) les intégrer dans la base de connaissances BCL2DB (« The BCL-2 Database »). Celle-ci est accessible via une interface Web (http://bcl2db.ibcp.fr) qui permet aux chercheurs d'extraire des données et d'effectuer des analyses de séquence / BCL-2 proteins play an essential role in the decision of life or death of animal cells. They control the induction of apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the mitochondrial pathway via regulators having opposite functions: anti- or pro-apoptotic. Proteins containing one or more Bcl-2 homology domains (BHl-4) are systematically classified in this family. Through bioinformatics and phylogenetic analysis, we revisited the different criteria for protein inclusion in the BCL-2 group and proposed a new classification taking into account structural and evolutionary data. This new nomenclature distinguishes a first group of homologous proteins (derived from a common ancestor), sharing a similar 3D structural fold with Bcl-2 and often (but not necessarily) having one or more BH motifs, and a fast expanding conglomerate of proteins without apparent phylogenetic relationships and sharing only a short region of sequence similarity corresponding to the BH3 motif. Based on these results, we built a process based on profiles HMM to identify proteins belonging to the BCL-2 protein group. Our automated process i) recovers on a monthly basis the nucleotide and protein sequences ii) annotates them and iii) integrates this information into BCL2DB ("The BCL-2 Database"). This resource can be accessed via a web interface (http://bcl2db.ibcp.fr) which allows researchers to extract data and perform sequence analysis

La protéine Bcl xL, membre de la famille de Bcl 2, est essentiellement décrite pour son rôle dans l'inhibition de la mort des cellules. Récemment, un nouveau rôle lui a été attribué dans la régulation de la macro-autophagie, processus principalement décrit pour promouvoir la survie des cellules. Bcl xL exerce donc ses fonctions de survie à travers la régulation d'au moins deux processus différents.Si les fonctions anti-apoptotiques de Bcl xL ne sont plus à démontrer, ses fonctions dans la régulation de l'autophagie sont davantage débattues. Ainsi, nous avons centré ce travail sur la caractérisation des fonctions pro-autophagiques de Bcl xL afin de mieux comprendre ses fonctions de survie. Nos résultats suggèrent que Bcl xL subit in vivo et dans des cellules en culture une modification de type déamidation. Nous montrons que cette modification renforce les fonctions pro-autophagiques de Bcl xL sans affecter ses fonctions anti-apoptotiques. Par ailleurs, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'interaction entre Bcl xL et la petite GTPase Rab7, une protéine essentielle au processus autophagique et endocytique. Nous avons généré, et analysé d'un point de vue fonctionnel, des mutants de Bcl xL de type perte ou gain d'interaction avec Rab7. Notre principale conclusion est que Bcl xL stimule le trafic des vésicules médié par Rab7, et nous proposons que les fonctions pro-autophagiques de Bcl xL sont majoritairement dépendantes de son interaction avec Rab7. Cette étude contribue ainsi à mieux définir les fonctions pro-autophagiques de Bcl xL ainsi que les processus qui les régulent. Par ailleurs, elle approfondit nos connaissances des fonctions oncogéniques de Bcl xL en intégrant la composante supplémentaire de ses fonctions pro-autophagiques, et ouvre ainsi des perspectives pour l'élaboration de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques anti-cancéreuses notamment. / Bcl xL, a member of the Bcl-2 family, is mainly described for its role in the inhibition of cell death. Recently, Bcl xL was attributed a new role in the regulation of macro-autophagy, a process described mainly for its contribution to cell survival. Hence, Bcl xL wields its survival functions through the regulation of at least two different processes. If the anti-apoptotic functions of Bcl xL are now well established, its role in the regulation of autophagy is more debated. Therefore we focused this work on the characterization of Bcl xL pro-autophagic functions in order to get a better understanding of its survival functions. Our results suggest that Bcl xL undergoes in vivo and in cultured cells a modification called deamidation. We show that this modification enhances its pro-autophagic functions without affecting its anti-apoptotic functions. In addition, we characterized an interaction between Bcl xL and the small GTPase Rab7 which is essential for autophagy and endocytosis. We generated mutants of Bcl xL either gaining or loosing interaction with Rab7. The functional analysis of these mutants suggested that Bcl xL stimulates the vesicle trafficking mediated by Rab7, and prompts us to hypothesize that Bcl xL pro-autophagic functions are mainly dependent on its interaction with Rab7. This study helps to better define the pro-autophagic functions of Bcl xL and the processes regulating them. It provides further insights in the oncogenic functions of Bcl xL by implementing additional component of its pro-autophagic functions, and opens perspectives for the development of new therapeutic strategies against cancer progression.