In Tumoren führt die Deregulation von Proteinen der Bcl-2 Familie zur Apoptoseresistenz. Diese kann aus einem Verlust der pro-apoptotischen Proteine Bax bzw. Bak, einer Hochregulation von anti-apoptotischen Bcl-2 Proteinen oder aus einer Inaktivierung von BH3-only Proteinen heraus erfolgen. BH3-only Proteine sequestrieren anti-apoptotische Bcl-2 Proteine und induzieren dadurch die Aktivierung von Bax bzw. Bak. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war daher, die Regulation von Apoptose durch das pro-apoptotische BH3-only-Protein Noxa zu untersuchen. Zusätzlich sollte der Mechanismus der Apoptoseinduktion durch niedermolekulare Bcl-2 Inhibitoren in Tumorzellen untersucht werden. Hier wird gezeigt, dass die putativen Bcl-2 Inhibitoren Gossypol, HA14-1 und zum Teil BH3I-2 unabhängig von Bax und Bak Zelltod induzierten. Dies weist darauf hin, dass die Apoptoseinduktion durch diese niedermolekularen Substanzen zumindest teilweise "off-target" ist, d.h. unabhängig von den Zielstrukturen der Bcl-2 Familie erfolgt. Eine andere Strategie zur Aktivierung des mitochondrialen Apoptosewegs ist die Expression von BH3-only Proteinen. Zunächst wurde die Expression putativer Spleißvarianten des Noxa-Gens auf mRNA- und Proteinebene durchgeführt. Hierbei wurde das bekannte BH3-only Protein Noxa als kurze Spleißvariante (NoxaS) und eine bisher unbekannte, lange Spleißvariante (NoxaL) gefunden. Zur funktionellen Analyse wurden konditionale Expressionsvektoren für beide Noxa-Varianten hergestellt. Die Expression von NoxaS führte zu einer differenziellen Aktivierung von Bak und/oder Bax. NoxaL hingegen verfügt über keine BH3-Domäne, induzierte aber dennoch Apoptose in einem Prostatakarzinom-Zelllinienmodell. Weitergehende Untersuchungen zeigten, dass es hier zu einer BH3-unabhängigen Aktivierung eines Bak-vermittelten Zelltod-Signalwegs kommt. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert somit neue Erkenntnisse zur Zelltodregulation und experimentellen Apoptoseinduktion über BH3-unabhängige Signalmechanismen. / In many tumors deregulation of Bcl-2 family proteins lead to apoptosis resistance. This deregulation can occur through the loss of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax respectively Bak, through upregulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins or from the inactivation of BH3-only proteins. BH3-only proteins sequester anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins and hereby activate Bax and Bak. Therefore aim of the present work was to study the regulation of apoptosis by the pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Noxa. In addition the mechanism of apoptosis induction in different tumor cells by small molecular substances mimicking the function of BH3-only proteins ought to be investigated. Here we show that the putative Bcl-2 inhibitors Gossypol, HA14-1 and partly BH3I-2 induce cell death independent from Bax and Bak. This shows that the induction of apoptosis by these substances is at least partly off target, i.e. occurs independent of the target structures of the Bcl-2 family. Another strategy to activate the mitochondrial signaling pathway is the expression of BH3-only proteins. Initially the expression of putative splicing variants of the noxa gene was carried out on mRNA and protein level. Here the known NoxaS as short splicing variant (NoxaS) and an up to that point unknown long splicing variant (NoxaL) have been found. For functional analysis of the two splicing variants conditional expression vectors have been generated. The overexpression of NoxaS led to a differential activation of Bax and/or Bak. However NoxaL does not contain a BH3 domain but still induced apoptosis in a prostate carcinoma cell system. Advanced studies showed a BH3 independent activation of a Bak mediated cell death signaling pathway. The present work therefore provides new insights into cell death regulation and experimental apoptosis induction via BH3 independent signaling mechanisms.

No description available.

La famille des kinases Src, dont Lyn fait partie, joue un rôle clé dans le contrôle de nombreux processus biologiques. Lyn a une fonction bien établie dans les cellules hématopoïétiques et est notamment impliqué dans le maintien de différentes leucémies et son expression protéique est altérée dans les tumeurs solides. Plusieurs études ont mis en évidence qu’elle avait un rôle anti-apoptotique. Lyn peut être clivée par les caspases en donnant une protéine tronquée cytosolique. Nous avons ainsi montré que Lyn cytosolique (cLyn) régulait Bim, un membre pro-apoptotique de la famille Bcl-2, en le phosphorylant sur les tyrosines 92 et 161 en inhibant la fonction pro-apoptotique de Bim, en augmentant son interaction avec Bcl-XL, limitant ainsi la perméabilisation de la membrane externe mitochondriale et l’apoptose. Lyn possède également un rôle pro-inflammatoire. Nous avions préalablement montré que la surexpression de cLyn, chez la souris, conduit à un syndrome inflammatoire de la peau, ressemblant au psoriasis. Sur la base de ce résultat, nous avons voulu savoir si Lyn jouait un rôle dans cette maladie chronique de la peau. L’analyse de l’expression de Lyn chez des patients souffrant de psoriasis a montré que Lyn était surexprimée dans la peau lésionnelle par rapport à la peau non lésionnelle ou saine, résultats confirmés dans deux modèles de psoriasis chez la souris. De façon intéressante, nous avons montré que l’augmentation de l’expression de Lyn se situe à la fois dans le derme et dans l’épiderme chez l’homme et chez la souris, indiquant que le recrutement de cellules immunitaires dans la peau lésionnelle mais aussi la modulation de Lyn dans les kératinocytes sont impliqués. Par ailleurs, une augmentation de l’expression de Lyn a été observée dans les kératinocytes humains stimulés par le TNF-α et l'IL-17A. Afin de déterminer le rôle de Lyn dans cette maladie cutanée nous l’avons induit chez des souris déficientes pour Lyn. Une réduction significative du phénotype cutanée a été observée dans les souris LynKO, identifiant Lyn comme un nouvel acteur dans la pathogénie du psoriasis. De plus, nos résultats ont établi que l’expression de Lyn dans les kératinocytes semblait suffisante pour le maintien du phénotype psoriasique, indiquant un nouveau rôle de Lyn dans les kératinocytes. Au cours de ce travail, nous avions observé que les caspases inflammatoires étaient activées dans la peau lésionnelle de patients atteints du psoriasis. Les caspases inflammatoires, suite à leur activation, vont cliver l’IL-1β et l’IL-18, ce qui conduit à leur maturation. Nous avons alors voulu savoir si les caspases participaient au développement du psoriasis. Nous avons pu montrer que lorsque nous induisions du psoriasis chez des souris, l’invalidation des caspases inflammatoires ou son inhibition pharmacologique réduisait de façon significative le développement de la maladie. Bien que les cellules immunitaires et les kératinocytes soient capables de secréter de l’IL-1β via l’activation de l’inflammasome, nos données ont établi que seule l’activation des caspases inflammatoires dans le système immunitaire semblait nécessaire pour une réponse inflammatoire complète. En résumé, l’ensemble de mon travail de thèse a permis de montrer un mécanisme moléculaire par lequel la kinase Lyn régule négativement la voie apoptotique mitochondriale, ce qui peut contribuer à la transformation et/ou la résistance des cellules cancéreuses. D’autre part, nos résultats montrent que Lyn pourrait être un régulateur important du psoriasis, et notre étude indique que les caspases inflammatoires activées dans les cellules immunitaires sont impliquées dans la pathogenèse du psoriasis. A ce jour, bien que plusieurs traitements aient été développés pour le psoriasis, la maladie reste non résolue, donc le développement de cibles thérapeutiques contre Lyn et les caspases inflammatoires pourraient être intéressant pour le traitement de la maladie. / The Src family kinase, of which Lyn is one member, plays a key role in controlling many biological processes. Lyn has a well-established function in hematopoietic cells, presenting an important role in the regulation of hematopoietic abnormalities. In fact, Lyn plays a key role in maintaining several kind of leukemia, and furthermore it expression is altered in solid tumors. Different studies have shown that Lyn has an anti-apoptotic role. Lyn can be cleaved by caspases, cysteine proteases involved in apoptosis and inflammation, giving a new protein with a cytosolic location, different from the WT and membrane-anchored form. We have shown that the cytosolic form of Lyn (cLyn) regulated Bim, a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family, involved in the control of mitochondrial apoptosis. We have identified that Bim is phosphorylated on tyrosine 92 and 161 by Lyn, resulting in an inhibition of its pro-apoptotic function, increasing its interaction with anti-apoptotic members such as Bcl-XL, thus limiting the permeabilization of mitochondrial outer membrane and impairing cell apoptosis. Lyn also has a pro-inflammatory role. We have previously shown that overexpression of the caspase-cleaved form of Lyn, in mice, leads to an inflammatory skin syndrome, resembling human psoriasis. Based on this result, we wanted to know if Lyn played a role in this chronic skin disease. Analysis of Lyn's expression in psoriasis patients showed that Lyn was overexpressed in lesional skin compared to non-lesional or healthy skin, which was subsequently confirmed in two mouse models of psoriasis disease. Interestingly, we have shown that the increase in Lyn expression is in both the dermis and the epidermis in humans and in mice, indicating that recruitment of immune cells into lesional skin but also the modulation of Lyn in keratinocytes are involved. To determine the role of Lyn in this skin disease we induced a psoriasis-like phenotype in Lyn deficient mice. A significant reduction in cutaneous phenotype was observed in LynKO mice compared to WT mice, identifying Lyn as a new player in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. In addition, our results established that Lyn expression in keratinocytes seemed crucial and sufficient for the maintenance of the psoriasis phenotype, indicating a new role of Lyn in the regulation of keratinocytes. During this work, we observed that inflammatory caspases were activated in lesional skin from psoriasis patients. Inflammatory caspases, following their activation within the inflammasome, will cleave IL-1β and IL-18, leading to their maturation. We then wanted to know if inflammatory caspases participated in the development of psoriasis. We were able to show that when we induced a psoriasis-like disease in mice, the invalidation of inflammatory caspases or its pharmacological inhibition significantly reduced the development of the disease compared to WT mice. Although immune cells and keratinocytes were able to secrete IL-1β via activation of the inflammasome, our data established that only activation of inflammatory caspases in the immune system seemed necessary for a complete inflammatory response. In summary, my thesis shows a molecular mechanism by which Lyn tyrosine kinase negatively regulates the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, which may contribute to the transformation and/or chemotherapeutic resistance of cancer cells. On the other hand, our results show that Lyn could be an important regulator of psoriasis and our study indicates that inflammatory caspases activated in immune cells are involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. To date, although several treatments have been developed for psoriasis, the disease remains unresolved, so the development of therapeutic targets against Lyn and inflammatory caspases could be of interest for the treatment of the disease.

Les cancers de l’ovaire demeurant particulièrement meurtriers du fait de leur capacité à développer une résistance aux chimiothérapies conventionnelles, il est donc indispensable de mettre en place de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques susceptibles de surmonter la chimiorésistance pour améliorer leur prise en charge. Les travaux antérieurs de l’Unité ont démontré que les protéines anti-apoptotiques Bcl-xL et Mcl-1 coopèrent pour protéger les cellules cancéreuses ovariennes contre l’apoptose et que leur inhibition concomitante conduit à la mort des cellules chimiorésistantes. A ce jour, seuls les inhibiteurs de Bcl-xL/Bcl-2 ont démontré une efficacité en clinique, en particulier l’ABT-263 (Navitoclax). En revanche, l’inhibition de Mcl-1 reste problématique dans un contexte clinique. La recherche d’outils pharmacologiques conduisant à l’inhibition ou à l’inactivation de Mcl-1, utilisables en clinique, reste donc un enjeu majeur, d’autant que cette protéine est désormais désignée comme une cible thérapeutique prioritaire dans de nombreuses localisations tumorales. C’est dans ce contexte que mon projet de thèse s’est inscrit, l’objectif étant d’identifier et d’évaluer de nouveaux inhibiteurs pharmacologiques de Mcl-1 synthétisés par des équipes de chimistes. Dans cette optique, mon projet de thèse s’est scindé en deux parties : Dans une première étude, je me suis attachée à cribler in vitro des molécules appartenant à différentes familles chimiques (Oligopyridines dérivées du Pyridoclax, « Lead » de la première génération des oligopyridines précédemment identifié par notre équipe, ou analogues de MIM1) dans le but d’identifier de nouveaux inhibiteurs de Mcl-1 plus actifs que les molécules dont ils dérivent. Ce travail a permis d’identifier la MR31367, une molécule issue du Pyridoclax qui présente une activité pro-apoptotique plus forte que ce dernier sur plusieurs lignées tumorales ovariennes chimioresistantes. Nous avons également pu mettre en évidence sur ces mêmes modèles que plusieurs molécules issues de MIM1 exhibaient une activité pro-apoptotique amplifiée. Cette étude nous a également permi de mettre en évidence une relation structure activité permettant de classer ces molécules en inhibiteurs spécifiques de Mcl-1 et « dual-inhibiteur » de Mcl-1 et Bcl-xL. Dans une seconde étude, mon travail a consisté en l’évaluation préclinique du sel de Pyridoclax. Nous avons étudié l’effet de différentes doses de Pyridoclax administré par différentes voies d’administration, en agent seul ou en combinaison avec l’ABT-263 sur différents modèles tumoraux établis à partir des lignées chimiorésistantes de cancers ovariens. Nous avons ainsi pu mettre en évidence un effet anti-tumoral du Pyridoclax (20 mg/kg/j) administré par voie IV en agent seul sur des 2 modèles des 3 modèles de xénogreffes, et cela sans toxicité avérée. Ces résultats prometteurs ouvrent des perspectives intéressantes quant à l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs pharmacologiques de Mcl-1 pour le traitement des cancers de l’ovaire / Ovarian cancer is the most leading cause of death from gynecologic malignancies because of its late diagnosis and its ability to develop chemoresistance to conventional therapies. It is now essential to develop new therapeutic strategies to overcome this chemoresistance and improve patient care. Our laboratory has demonstrated the overexpression of the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-xL and Mcl-1 and their cooperation to protect ovarian cancer cells from apoptosis. Currently, the clinically relevant pharmacologic inhibition of Bcl-xL is available using ABT-263 (Navitoclax). However, selective direct Mcl-1 inhibition remained a challenge. This protein is one of the most important anti-apoptotic member which is expressed in multiple cancer types and is at the origin of the acquired resistance to chemotherapy and Bcl-2 family inhibitors (Navitoclax, Venetoclax). Thus, Mcl-1 inhibition represents a major challenge for the clinical success of the Bcl-2 family inhibitors. In this context, I was interested in identifying and evaluating new Mcl-1 inhibitors designed and synthetized by different chemistry research teams. My project was focused on two aspects. In the first part, we have evaluated the cytotoxic effect of different molecules derived from 2 Mcl-1 inhibitors, the Pyridoclax from the oligopyridine family and MIM1. The screening of 8 Noxa-mimetic molecules derived from Pyridoclax allowed us to identify MR31367, one of the most potent oligopyridine molecules that shows a stronger anti-apoptotic activity than Pyridoclax (15μM) and sensitizes different chemoresistant ovarian cancer cell lines (IGROV1-R10, SKOV-3 and A2780) to anti-Bcl-xL strategies (ABT-737, siRNA). Furthermore, we have evaluated the pro-apoptotic activity of 14 MIM1 derivative molecules using the same cellular model. This study has demonstrated that most of these derivatives have greater pro-apoptotic activity than MIM1. We have also established the structure-activity relationship leading to classify these molecules as “Mcl-1 inhibitors” or as “dual inhibitors” of Mcl-1 and Bcl-xL.The second part of my project was focused on the preclinical evaluation of Pyridoclax hydrochlorid. We have analyzed the antitumor activity of Pyridoclax hydrochlorid in several subcutaneous xenografts derived from human ovarian cancer cell lines (IGROV1-R10, SKOV-3 and A2780). Different routes of Pyridoclax hydrochlorid administration were tested (oral, IV and IT) and its antitumor effect was analyzed at different doses as single agent or in combination with ABT-263 (100mg/kg). This study highlighted an effective antitumor activity of 20mg/kg of Pyridoclax hydrochlorid administered intravenously as single agent in two of three xenograft models without any side effects. This results open up interesting perspectives for the clinical use of Mcl-1 inhibitors to improve the clinical management of ovarian cancer

Le glycolipide Gb3/CD77 qui est fortement exprimé en surface des cellules de lymphome de Burkitt (LB) est le récepteur d’une toxine bactérienne la Vérotoxine-1 (VT-1). Notre équipe a montré précédemment que, dans les cellules de LB, la VT-1 induit une cascade apoptotique mettant en jeu les caspases et la mitochondrie. Mon travail a consisté à poursuivre l’analyse des bases moléculaires de ce processus, notamment en m’intéressant au rôle de la protéine pro-apoptotique Bid. Bid est un membre de la famille Bcl-2 qui est clivé par la caspase-8 au cours de l’apoptose et dont la forme tronquée (t-Bid) se relocalise à la mitochondrie. Grâce à l’utilisation de clones cellulaires de LB où Bid a été inhibée puis réexprimée sous forme non clivable et d’un inhibiteur de la caspase-8, nous avons montré que lors de l’apoptose induite par la VT1 : 1) la protéine entière Bid (full-length Bid ou FL-Bid) contrôle l’activation de protéines pro-apoptotiques Bax et de Bak ; 2) t-Bid et FL-Bid sont, toutes les deux, impliquées dans la libération des protéines pro-apoptotiques (cytochrome c et Smac/DIABLO) de l’espace intermembranaire de la mitochondrie vers le cytosol ; 3) FL-Bid contrôle l’homodimérisation de Bax et de Bak qui contribuerait à la libération initiale du cytochrome c et de Smac/DIABLO alors que t-Bid est nécessaire à l’hétérodimérisation de Bax et Bak qui permettrait l’amplification de cette libération. L’ensemble de ces résultats montre donc une coopération fonctionnelle entre Bax et Bak au cours de l’apoptose induite par la VT-1 et surtout met en évidence que l’activation de la voie caspase-8/t-Bid n’est absolument pas requise pour initier la mort cellulaire.Gb3/CD77 est aussi exprimé à la surface de certains lymphocytes B normaux, où il constitue un marqueur de différenciation mais sa fonction endogène reste encore indéterminée. Une deuxième partie de mon travail a consisté à essayer d’identifier le ligand physiologique de Gb3/CD77 pour comprendre son rôle biologique. Grâce à une analyse en spectrométrie de masse, nous avons identifié deux protéines potentiellement partenaires de Gb3/CD77 : la galectine-7 et la protéine S100A11. / The Gb3/CD77 glycolipid, which is strongly expressed in Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) cells, is a receptor for the bacterial toxin Verotoxin-1 (VT-1). Previously, our group has shown that VT-1 induces an apoptotic pathway in BL cells which is dependent on caspases and mitochondria. Here, we provide new insights into this pathway. A pro-apoptotic member in the Bcl-2 family, Bid is cleaved by caspase-8 and its truncated form t-Bid is translocated to mitochondria. Using LB cell clones where Bid was inhibited prior to being reexpressed as a non-cleavable mutated form (BID D59A) and a caspase-8 inhibitor to explore VT-1-induced apoptosis, we showed that 1) the full length Bid (FL-Bid) controls the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak; 2) Both t-Bid and FL-Bid are involved in the release of pro-apoptotic proteins (cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO) from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytosol; 3) FL-Bid controls the homo-oligomerization of both Bax and Bak, likely contributing to the initial release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO while t-Bid is needed for their hetero-oligomerization followed by amplification of the release. Together, these results reveal a functional cooperation between Bax and Bak during VT-1-induced apoptosis and, most importantly, that activation of caspase-8 and t-Bid is not required to induce the onset of cell death. Gb3/CD77 is also expressed in a proportion of normal B-lymphocytes where it constitutes a differentiation marker but whose function remains uncharacterized. In an effort to look for physiological ligands, we have used a biochemical approach followed by mass spectrometry analysis. Two proteins have been identified as potentially Gb3/CD77 partners, namely galectin-7 and protein S100A11.

No description available.

Biological systems carry inherent complexity, which pose difficulties observing behavioural properties, such as diffusion coefficients, kinetic constants and state switching occurrences. With constantly improving computing power and microscopy technologies, single molecule methods have become a viable alternative when probing the behaviour of proteins, enzymes, lipids and other molecules. Processed microscopy images and videos provide information such as particle intensities and trajectories, avoiding ensemble averaging and therefore allowing for a detailed breakdown of particle mobility and interactions. A single particle tracking (SPT) algorithm was developed which implements detection, localization and position linking on image stacks. Sub-pixel precise detection is done via either centroid determination, Gaussian fit, or radial symmetry centres, while tracking makes use of distance based global cost optimization. The detection algorithm is also used for single particle spectroscopy, where intensity information is used to determine the size of oligomers, as well as their interaction with other molecules through channel intensity cross-correlation. The algorithm underwent benchmarking with simulated videos and was applied to three different biological systems with comparison to other established methods of analysis. The first system studied was the diffusion of the fluorescent lipophilic dye DiD in a five-component mitochondria-like solid-supported lipid bilayer. Comparing line-scanning fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and single particle tracking, the measured diffusion coefficients were found to be statistically different, with DFCS = 3 μm2s-1 and DSPT = 2 μm2s-1, indicating different operational ranges for the two methods. FCS outperforms SPT when the diffusion coefficient exceeds 1 μm2s-1, making it ideal for lipid diffusion in fluid membranes and proteins in solution with weak membrane interaction. SPT is best suited for mobile and immobile membrane inserted proteins, as well as lipid diffusion in viscous membranes. The second system studied was the interaction between the two proteins Bax and Bid when inserted in a membrane. Bax and Bid are both members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins, which plays a vital role in the apoptosis mechanism, by inducing mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. To study this system with single particle spectroscopy, fluorescently labelled Bax and truncated Bid (tBid) were imaged when interacting with a mitochondria-like supported lipid bilayer with confocal microscopy. Immobile and mobile particles were detected and distinguished based on the eccentricity of the observed fluorescence spot. The intensity of the particle signal was used to determine oligomer type (homo-oligomerization) while the interaction with the particles' counterpart (hetero-oligomerization) was determined by channel cross-correlation. This allowed the measurement of the 2D-KD values for mobile (0.6 μm-2) and immobile (0.08 μm-2) Bax/tBid complexes, showing that the degree of insertion of the proteins in the membrane greatly affect their affinity for each other. The third and final system studied was the motion of cellulases on cellulose fibers. Enzymatic hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose is a costly step in the generation of fermentable sugars for biofuel production. Due to the complex structure and many possible interaction states of the enzymes with cellulose, single particle tracking is a well-adapted technique to the gathering of information on the enzyme dynamics, which is essential for process optimization. The movement of cellulases on cellulose substrate was observed via labelled Thermobifidia fusca Cel5A, Cel6B and Cel9A on bacterial micro-crystalline cellulose substrate. The detected trajectories were analyzed using multiple diffusion models. A simple one-state diffusion model was insufficient to describe the observed radial displacement distributions and so a two-state model was introduced and confronted with the data using conventional least-squares fits , as well as a hidden Markov approach. The diffusion coefficients of the two states are found to be on the order of Dfast = 10-3 μm2s-1 and Dslow = 10-4 μm2s-1, with the slow state being more stable and therefore more likely to occur. Single particle tracking can give us better insight into complex interactions, such as synergistic binding of proteins existing in several different states and processive enzymatic behaviour, where ensemble averaging techniques can fall short. The uses of single molecule methods are plentiful and with the current rise of machine learning, higher levels of abstraction will provide us with more detailed insights into biological processes, driving promising developments in the medical field, as well as new technologies in many sectors of industry. / Thesis / Doctor of Science (PhD) / Proteins are the motors that drive most cellular processes, for example steering a cell’s life cycle, or decomposing sources of nutrients. Being able to observe the motion of individual proteins is key to understanding their behaviour. In this work a single particle tracking (SPT) program was developed to extract protein trajectories from fluorescence microscopy experiments. With this tool-set we investigated the following two systems. The first system of interest is the Bcl-2 protein family, which is vital during the pro- grammed cell death at the end of each cell’s life span. The failure of a controlled cell death can have dire consequences, such as necrosis and cancer. The Bcl-2 family proteins Bid and Bax are active on the outer membrane of the mitochondria, where they initiate the process of terminating the cell’s functions by forming pores. For our experiments we ar- tificially mimicked the outer membrane of the mitochondria, introduced Bid and Bax and observed their preferential groupings on the membrane surface. This provided indications of the mechanisms involved during binding and pore formation. The motivation behind the investigation of the second system is the improvement of biofuel generation from a renewable source: plant-based biomass. Cellulases are enzymes from bacteria or fungi that break down cellulose – one of the main building blocks of all plant cell walls – into fermentable sugars. In fluorescence microscopy experiments a purified cellulose substrate was used to monitor the motion of three types of cellulases. The insight which we gained into the cellulase behaviour may allow the optimization of the process of cellulose decomposition.

Apoptosis represents one of the cell death mechanisms which is realized after the application of taxanes in breast cancer cell lines. Apoptosis induction can be principally triggered either by outer or inner pathway. The aim of the diploma thesis is to contribute to the elucidation of role and mechanisms of the inner mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis induction after taxane application (paclitaxel and SB-T-1216) employing a model of breast carcinoma cell lines SK- BR-3 (nonfunctional p53, functional capase-3) and MCF-7 (functional p53, nonfunctional caspase-3). Specifically, we tested the effect of both employed taxanes on mitochondrial membrane potential, ROS level and the expression and localization of proteins regulating inner mitochondrial pathway. Taxane application resulted in mitochondrial membrane dissipation in SK-BR-3 cell line. However, this was not shown in MCF-7 cell line. We found no changes in Bax and Smac/DIABLO expression after taxane application in both tested cell lines. There was a decrease of Bid expression after taxane application in SK-BR-3 line, but not in MCF-7 line. Taxane application did not lead to the translocation of Bax and Bid (tBid) proteins from cytosol to mitochondria in both tested cell lines. Similarly, there was no Smac/DIABLO release from mitochondria to...

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Rolle des pro-apoptotischen Proteins Bim am endoplasmatischen Retikulum (ER) und an den Mitochondrien zu untersuchen. Für diese Untersuchungen wurden zwei Isoformen von Bim verwendet, zum einen BimL, welches an den Motor Dynein Komplex gebunden ist, zum anderen BimS, welches im Zytosol lokalisiert ist. Um eine konditionale Expression von Bim zu erreichen, wurde Myc-markierte humane cDNA unter der Kontrolle des Tet-Off Systems in einen adenoviralen Vector kloniert. Eine Überexpression von BimL und BimS induzierte in der Prostatakarzinomzelllinie DU145 Bax- und Bak-abhängigen apoptotischen Zelltod. Eine Überexpression des anti-apoptotischen Proteins Bcl-2 lokalisiert am ER zeigte eine vollständige Hemmung der Bim-induzierten Apoptose, was die Wichtigkeit des ER unterstreicht. Überexpression von Bcl-2 an den Mitochondrien führte eine partielle Hemmung herbei. Bim Expression induzierte Bax- und Bak-abhängig den Zusammenbruch des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials. Dieses wurde ebenso in mit am ER lokalisiertem Bcl-2 Zellen beobachtet. Bcl-2 lokalisiert an den Mitochondrien verminderte dagegen mitochondriale Permeabilisation. Proteinanalysen zeigten eine Hochregulierung von ER-Stress Proteinen nach Bim Überexpression. Zusätzlich wurde Cytochrom c Freisetzung aus den Mitochondrien und Aktivierung von Caspase-9, -3 und -8 beobachtet. Mit einem Breitband-Caspase Hemmer konnte der Bim-induzierte Zelltod vollständig gehemmt werden, was zeigt, dass Caspasen essentiell sind. Zusammenfassend kann gesagt werden, dass Bim, parallel zum mitochondrialen Signalweg, ER-Stress auslöst und, dass Bim eine effektive Apoptose durch die Interaktion des ER und der Mitochondrien induziert. / The aim of this thesis was to investigate the role of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Bim, at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the mitochondria. For this purpose, a full length human myc-tagged Bim cDNA was cloned into an adenoviral vector, which allows for the conditional expression of the transgene under the control of a Tet-Off-system. Two different Bim isoforms were used for these investigations. One was BimL, which is bound to the motor dynein complex of the microtubule and the other one was BimS, which is localized in the cytosol. The enforced expression of each of these two isoforms in the prostate cancer cell line DU145, showed the capability of BimL and BimS to induce apoptosis via either Bak or Bax. Also, Bax- and Bak-dependent breakdown of the mitochondrial membrane potential upon overexpression of either Bim isoforms was measured. This effect was also observed in cells overexpression the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 at the ER. However, targeting Bcl-2 to the mitochondria partially inhibited Bim-induced mitochondrial permeabilization. These findings indicated the execution of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway upon Bim signalling. Nevertheless, expression of Bcl-2 at the mitochondria partially suppressed Bim-induced apoptosis whereas ER-targeted Bcl-2 entirely prevented cell death induction by Bim underlining the importance of the ER. Further, an upregulation of ER stress proteins upon Bim expression was seen. Cytochrome c release form the mitochondria and activation of caspase-9, -3 and -8 was observed. In addition, the complete inhibition of Bim-induced cell death by a pan caspase inhibitor revealed that caspases are crucial. In conclusion, Bim induces the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and, in parallel, triggers ER stress. It seems that Bim mediates cell death through the interaction of the mitochondria and the ER. The ER-mitochondria cross-talk leads to the amplification of the apoptotic death signal.

Reproductive containment in farmed fish is highly desired for sustainable aquaculture to prevent genetic introgression with wild conspecifics and enhance productivity by suppressing sexual maturation. A number of strategies have already been implemented or have been tested in commercially important fish (e.g. triploidy, monosexing, hormonal therapies); however, they either do not result in 100% containment, or they cannot be applied to all species. One promising new approach consists in disrupting primordial germ cells (PGCs), at the origin of germline cells, to induce sterility. The work carried out in this doctoral thesis aimed to investigate the genes involved in the survival of germ cells and subsequently conduct a functional analysis of candidate genes using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system to ultimately provide the basis for the development of a novel sterilisation technique. Nile tilapia was chosen as the experimental animal as it is a major aquaculture species worldwide and the control of reproduction plays a critical role in the farming productivity in this species. In addition, the species has clear advantages as its whole genome sequence is accessible, the generation time is relatively short and zygotes can be available all year round. Initially, a panel of 11 candidate genes with reported roles in survival of PGCs was investigated during the ontogenic development which led to the selection of piwi-like (piwil) gene as a target for genome editing. Then, high temperature was tested as a means to induce germ cell loss to better understand the mechanism underlying germ cell survival and apoptosis, and this study confirmed the functional importance of piwil genes in relation to germ cell loss and proliferation. In addition, the study suggested potential subfunctionalisation within the Bcl-2 gene family which requires further investigation. The next step aimed to optimise the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing method by improving the microinjection system and testing different concentrations of sgRNAs. Over 95% of injected embryos showed on-target mutation in piwil2 via zygote injection of CRISPR/Cas9 reagents and complete KO larvae were shown in half of the mutants, producing putative sterile fish. However, there was no clear association between the phenotypes in PGCs and the mutation rate. Further comparative studies of mutant screening methods including T7E1, RGEN, HRMA, fragment analysis and NGS revealed that the genotypes of F0 are highly mosaic, suggesting that deep sequencing is recommended for accurate and high throughput F0 screening and further improvement for predictable genome editing is required for a reliable gene functional analysis in F0. In summary, the current thesis provided new scientific knowledge and supporting evidence for the use of the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing platform to study gene function associated with sterility, with the ultimate goal to develop an alternative sterilisation method in fish.