[pt] Esta tese estuda a construção do lugar da criança e do adolescente enquanto sujeitos de direitos a partir do Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (ECA). Como objetivo inicial, estabelece uma leitura dos direitos da criança enquanto um processo complexo de mudanças e práticas na construção de uma nova cultura. O ECA estabeleceu dispositivos institucionais como leis, programas e órgãos que configuraram um circuito institucional gerando novas práticas no cotidiano. Mas, ao mesmo tempo em que funciona como uma transformação jurídico-institucional avançada, o ECA dispara uma ação intempestiva e abrupta no cotidiano da sociedade brasileira. Atores foram colocados em diálogo para a validação desse direito, nesse sentido, uma nova perspectiva de direitos trouxe consigo a valorização do ator e sua capacidade de ação em rede dentro de uma nova lógica de gestão pública. Os efeitos reais das inovações do ECA podem ser observados à luz da presença da criança no espaço público, geralmente, lugares em que são invisíveis, e onde o seu direito à cidade tende a desaparecer. Através de pesquisa empírica o estudo evidenciará trajetórias de crianças e adolescentes da Favela da Rocinha, no Rio de Janeiro, com passagem pelo Conselho tutelar, por meio de tramas e relatos dos casos. Este estudo inclui também, de forma complementar, uma análise da relação deste Conselho com algumas agências que compõem a Rede de proteção de crianças e adolescentes - Ministério Público, Centro de Referência de Assistência Social (CRAS) e Escola - de forma a entender como cada uma dessas agências, em seu modo de funcionamento, revela a fragilidade a que estão expostas crianças e adolescentes de origem popular. / [en] This thesis studies the construction of the place of the child and the adolescent as subjects of rights from the Statute of the Child and the Adolescent. As an initial goal, it establishes a reading of children s rights as a complex process of changes and practices in the construction of a new culture. The ECA established institutional arrangements such as laws, programs and bodies that set up an institutional circuit generating new practices in everyday life. But, at the same time that it functions as an advanced juridical-institutional transformation, the ECA triggers an abrupt and untimely action in the daily life of Brazilian society. Actors were put in dialogue for the validation of this right, in this sense, a new perspective of rights brought with it the actor s valorization and his ability to act in a network within a new logic of public management. The real effects of ECA innovations can be seen in the light of the child s presence in the public space, usually where they are invisible, and where their right to the city tends to disappear. Through empirical research, the study will show trajectories of children and adolescents from the Favela de Rocinha, in Rio de Janeiro, with passage through the Guardianship Council, through plots and case reports. This study also includes, in a complementary way, an analysis of the relationship of this Council with some agencies that make up the Network for the Protection of Children and Adolescents - Public Prosecutor s Office, Social Assistance Reference Center and School - in order to understand how each one of these agencies, in its way of functioning, reveals the fragility to which children and adolescents of popular origin are exposed.

La protection du droit à l’instruction a fait l’objet de longues discussions lors des travaux préparatoiresà la Convention européenne des droits de l’Homme. Si l’idée d’un droit à l’instruction pour tous s’esttrès vite imposée dans l’esprit de ses rédacteurs, le respect des convictions religieuses etphilosophiques des parents, qui assurent en priorité l’éducation et l’enseignement de leurs enfants, afait l’objet de davantage de controverses. Ces hésitations expliquent la présence de ce droit à l’article 2du premier protocole additionnel à la Convention du 20 mars 1952. Son importance n’est cependantpas à négliger. Qualifié de droit matriciel, le droit à l’instruction participe à la garantie concrète eteffective des autres droits et libertés de la pensée protégés par le corpus européen. Il assure en celal’épanouissement de la personne et lui garantit le droit de se déterminer librement. Il peut donc êtrerevendiqué par tous, élève ou étudiant, et peu importe la structure fréquentée (établissement public,privé, scolaire ou supérieur). Consciente de cet enjeu décisif pour la sauvegarde d’une sociétédémocratique, la Cour européenne des droits de l’Homme a su interpréter l’article 2 du Protocoleadditionnel de manière à assurer un juste équilibre entre la marge nationale d’appréciation et lapromotion du droit à l’instruction. Pour cela, elle a mis à la charge des Etats des obligations positivesafin d’assurer à chacun la possibilité, notamment, de se servir des moyens d’instruction existants. Engarantissant ainsi l’égal accès de tous aux structures existantes, la Cour européenne des droits del’Homme a également incité les autorités étatiques à respecter les particularités de chacun. A cette fin,une obligation de neutralité leur est imposée aussi bien dans les établissements d’enseignement quedans les programmes dispensés. Aucun élève ni étudiant ne doit se sentir exclu ou stigmatisé en raisonde ses convictions propres. La garantie d’un droit universel à l’instruction implique alors la garantied’un droit à une instruction pluraliste. / The Protection of the right to education has been the subject of endness debates troughout thepreparatory work on the European Convention of Human Rights. While the idea of a right to educationfor all was quite evident in the mind of the drafters of the European Convention of Human Rights, therespect for religious and philosophical convictions of parents, who come first in the education of theirchildren, has been more controversial. Theses doubts explain the inscription of this right in Article 2 ofthe Protocol to the Convention on 20 March 1952. Its importance mustn’t be overlooked. Described asa « matrix right », the right to education contributes to a concrete and effective guarantee of the rightsand freedoms protected by the European Convention of Human Rights. It ensures personal blossomingand the right to make up their own minds. Therefore, everybody can claim this right, whether it be apupil or a student, regardless of the institution (public or private school, primary school or furthereducation). Aware of this key issue to protect a democratic society, the European Court of HumanRights has interpreted article 2 of the Protocol in order to reach a fair balance between the nationalmargin of appreciation and the protection of the right to education. That’s the reason why the Courtrequires States to achieve some positive obligations especially to enable everyone to use existingeducation means. Through the guarantee to an equal access of everyone to education institutions, theEuropean Court of Human Rights also encourages national authorities to observe the distinctivefeatures of each individual. In order to do so, the authorities must remain neutral both in educationalinstitutions and their curriculum. No pupil or student must feel excluded or chastised because of hispersonal convictions. Then, securing the universal right to education implies securing the right to apluralistic education.

Lietuvoje, kaip ir kitose ES valstybėse, kiekvienam jaunuoliui, nepaisant jo negalios, turi būti garantuojama teisę į mokslą. Lietuvos Respublikos įstatymai deklaruoja proto negalios asmenų teisę į ugdymą, profesinį rengimą bei įdarbinimą, tačiau neįgalieji šių savo teisių pilnai realizuoti negali. Nežymiai sutrikusio intelekto jaunuoliai, baigę bendrojo lavinimo ar specialiąsias mokyklas, neįstengia konkuruoti su kitais moksleiviais, stodami į profesinio rengimo mokyklas, nes bendrojo lavinimo ar specialiosiose mokyklose mokosi pagal adaptuotas ir modifikuotas programas. Dar viena iškilusi problema tai įstatyminė bazė. Profesinio mokymo įstatymas bei jį lydintis teisės aktai jau nebeatitinka šiuolaikinio gyvenimo realijų. Šie dokumentai negarantuoja specialiųjų poreikių vaikams, ugdytiems adaptuojant bendro lavinimo mokyklos dalykų programas, teisės mokytis antroje profesinio mokymo programų pakopoje. Šiuo metu asmenų su negalia profesinis mokymas, permokymas ir perkvalifikavimas vykdomas per darbo rinkos mokymo tarnybas, specialius mokymo centrus, profesinio mokymo mokyklas ir yra prieinamas asmenims su nežymiai sutrikusio intelekto. Nepakankamas, sunkiai prieinamas, mažai pritaikytas ir su vietos darbo rinkos poreikiais nesusietas profesinis mokymas, perkvalifikavimas tampa viena iš asmenų su negalia nedarbo priežasčių. Nėra profesinių įgūdžių (išlikusių, įgytų) įvertinimo metodikų, pagal kurias būtų galima spręsti apie profesinės reabilitacijos galimybę ir veiksmingumą... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / In Lithuania, like in the others EU countries, the right to education should be guaranteed to every young person despite his or her disability. The laws of Lithuanian Republic declare the right to education for people with mental disabilities, as well as their vocational training and job placement; however, the disabled people cannot realize those rights in full. After finishing adapted and modified programs in secondary and special schools, young people with light mental disorder are not able to compete with the rest of students for the place in vocational training schools. Another issue that has been raised is the legal base. The law of vocational training and associated documents do not match the realities of contemporary life. Those documents do not guarantee the right to study at the second level vocational training schools to children who were educated according to adopted secondary school programs. Currently the vocational training, re-training and re-skilling for people with disabilities is being done through the employment agencies, special training centers, vocational schools and is available only for those with light mental disorders. Vocational training and re-training, which is insufficient, difficult to access and poorly adapted to the demands in the job market, becomes one of the reasons for unemployment of disabled people. There is no methodology of evaluating the acquired vocational skills, according to which it is possible to estimate the possibility for... [to full text] / In Litauen, wie in anderen Staaten EU muß man jeden Jugendlichen mit einer Behinderung die Möglichkeit zur Ausbildung garantirten. Die litauischen Gesetze bestätigen den geistig behindrten Menschen, daß die eine Möglichkeit zum Lernen, Berufschulen zu absolvieren und in den Berufsmarkt zu integrieren haben, sondern die geistig Behinderte könen aus diesen Mögleichkeiten voll nicht benutzen. Die leicht behinderte Jugendliche, die Mittelchulen und speziellen Schschuelen absolviert haben, haben keine Chancen mit Anderen in den Berufschulen zu konkurieren, wiel sie in den Schulen ein adaptiertes Lernprogramm hatten. Noch ein wichtiges Problem - das Gesetzeswerk. Das Berufsbilgungsgesetz und anderen Begleitakten entsprechen heute keine Lebensrealität. Diese Gesetze geben keine Garantie für die leicht beginderten Jugendlichen, die nach dem adaptirten Programm lernten, weiter mit den anderen Kindern in der zeiten Berufsstufe studieren. Zur Zeit organiesirt man die berufliche Schulung und Umschulung mit Hilfe der Umschulungsorganiration des Arbeitsmarktes, der speciellen Berufschulen, in dennen nur die leicht behinderte Jugendlichen lernen können. Die Berufsprogramme sind zu dem Arbeitsmarkt nicht angepasst. Berufsrehabilitationssystem ist sehr schwach entwickelt und das macht diese Situation noch schlechter. Das Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufssystem ist nur für die gesunde Menschen, die zu dem Arbeitsmarkt leicht anzupassen können. Den behinderten Menschen... [der volle Text, siehe weiter]

A dissertação trata do direito à educação, destacando o direito à permanência no ensino e englobando o direito à escola, os direitos na escola e o sentimento de justiça. Na fundamentação teórica, o conceito de “direito à educação” foi abordado a partir do ordenamento jurídico-educacional brasileiro (do Direito Positivo), de autores nacionais e reconhecidos internacionalmente, bem como na perspectiva dos Direitos Humanos. As principais categorias de análise foram o conteúdo do direito à educação, a eficácia social e a justicialidade. A parte empírica foi realizada em uma escola pública de Porto Alegre, através de estudo de caso, no qual foram apresentados: caracterização institucional, análise do Regimento e do Projeto Pedagógico, com destaque para os itens “direitos e deveres” dos alunos e dos professores; análise estatística de freqüência, permanência e rendimento escolar; observações da dinâmica administrativa e pedagógica; observação e entrevistas sobre o tratamento dos alunos infreqüentes, inclusive sobre os registros na FICAI (Ficha de Comunicação de Aluno Infreqüente). Ademais, realizaram-se entrevistas com conselheiros tutelares, entrevistas com pais de alunos infreqüentes, com visitas a domicílio. Todos estes dados permitiram traçar as condições que promovem a infreqüência bem como as estratégias utilizadas pela escola, pelas famílias e a comunidade, e pelas demais instâncias do Poder Público para evitar a evasão. Dentre as medidas preventivas da infreqüência destacam-se as políticas públicas como o Programa Bolsa Família, com maior poder e abrangência de intervenção; e as práticas docentes e de gestão escolar, com menor impacto e eficácia. Na escola estudada, apenas 11% dos alunos inscritos no Programa Bolsa Família mantiveram a freqüência de 85% até o final do segundo ano de benefício, apesar de a escolar apagar as faltas de vários alunos. Nas relações pedagógicas, o afeto é o recurso mais utilizado, seguido da premiação aos alunos que tiveram menor número de faltas. No resgate dos alunos, destacam-se as ações da supervisão da escola, do Conselho Tutelar, complementadas pelo Ministério Público. De 63 alunos infreqüentes, todos com distorção idade-série, apenas seis voltaram definitivamente a freqüentar a escola. Ainda não há estratégia específica para o acolhimento dos retornados à escola. A justiça professoral se apóia na freqüência, como indicador objetivo e indiscutível para avaliar, classificar e aprovar/reprovar os alunos. Ouvidos os alunos resgatados e suas famílias e elaboradas as configurações familiares, é possível dizer que as famílias oscilam entre o desejo que os filhos freqüentem a escola e o desejo que eles ingressem no mercado de trabalho. O “sentimento de justiça” ainda precisa ser desenvolvido pelas famílias das crianças e adolescentes e (re)conhecido o direito à educação escolar como um direito justiciável, para que possa ser reivindicado. A omissão, negligência e violação do direito à permanência na escola é praticada por todos os entes comprometidos com a defesa dos direitos. Na relação “direito do aluno à permanência na escola” como direito humano e direito público subjetivo versus “dever do Estado em cumprir”, destacam-se as ações do Estado como as mais efetivas no cumprimento do dever de garantir a permanência de crianças e adolescentes na escola. Contudo, nas práticas escolares verifica-se que o direito à permanência na escola é privilégio daqueles que nela já estão inseridos e que não precisam reivindicar este direito. / This thesis discusses the right to education, highlighting the right to stay in school and covering the right to school(ing), the rights at school and the notion of justice. In specialized literature, the concept of ‘right to education’ has been approached considering Brazilian legal and educational structure (from Positive Right), national and internationally acknowledged writers and the Human Rights perspective. The main categories for analysis were the right to education, social efficiency and justiciability. The empirical part of the work took place at a public school in the city of Porto Alegre with an in-depth case study that presents: description of the institution; analysis of the school bylaws (focusing students and teachers’ rights and duties) and the pedagogical (curriculum) project; statistics on attendance, permanence and school progress; observation of administrative and pedagogical dynamics; observation and interviews regarding the procedures undertaken with low attendance rates, including the FICAI (Student Absence Communication Form) records. Besides, there were interviews with Children’s Rights Council advisors, and interviews with the parents of students with low attendance, through home visitations. All this data allowed to outline the conditions that lead to low attendance as well as the strategies to reduce drop-out rates used by the school, the families, the community, and other governmental agencies. Amongst the procedures created to prevent students’ low attendance, the Programa Bolsa Família (Family Allowance Program) stands out as an effective public policy for its wider intervention capacity; some school management and teaching practices, seemly with lower impact and effectiveness were also analyzed. Nevertheless, at the studied school, at the end of the second year on the Program, only 11% of the students enrolled in the Programa Bolsa Família could keep the required 85% attendance rate, in spite of the fact that the school had erased some absences of several students. In pedagogical relations (teacher’s attention to class and individual student), affection is the most used resource, followed by rewards offered to the students with the lowest number of absences. For the rescue of absent students, there were actions taken by the school supervisor and by the Conselho Tutelar (Children’s Rights Council), complemented by those from the State school administration department. Out of 63 students with low attendance rates — all of them over-aged for the grade of enrolment — only six returned definitely to school. At this school, there isn’t yet any specific strategy for the reception of those who return to school. Teachers’ justice is based mainly on attendance, which is considered as the objective and unquestionable indicator to evaluate, rank and/or pass/fail the students. After hearing the ‘rescued’ students and their families, and figuring out their family situation, it is possible to say that families balance between the wish that their children attend to school and the wish that they start working as early as possible. The ‘notion of justice’ still needs to be developed by the families, if the right to school is to be known and acknowledged as a justiciable right – i.e. a right that can be reclaimed as such. Omission, negligence and violation of the right to stay in school are common practices among those who are committed to defend children’s rights and the right to education. Considering the ‘student’s right to stay in school’ as a human right and as “subjective public right” versus the ‘State’s obligations/duties’, the latter (proper State actions) can be highlighted as the most effective ones for accomplishing continuous school attendance (the permanence of children and teenagers in school). However, among the school practices, the right to stay in school ends up being a privilege of those who are already enrolled and attending school, best said, the right to schooling belongs to those who do not need to reclaim it. / Esta disertación trata del derecho a la educación, dando destaque al derecho a la permanencia en el sistema educativo, englobando el derecho a la escuela, los derechos en la escuela y el sentimiento de justicia. En el marco teórico se trabajó el concepto de “derecho a la educación”, a partir de la ordenación jurídica educativa brasilera (del Derecho Positivo), de autores nacionales y reconocidos en ámbito internacional, así como en la perspectiva de los Derechos Humanos. Las principales categorías conceptuales para el análisis fueron: el contenido del derecho a la educación, su eficacia social y justiciable. La parte empírica se hizo en una escuela pública de Porto Alegre, a través de un estudio de caso hecho en profundidad, en el que se presentaron: la caracterización institucional, el análisis del Estatuto y del Proyecto Pedagógico, destacando “derechos y deberes” de los alumnos y de los maestros; el análisis estadístico de presencia, permanencia y aprovechamiento escolar; observaciones de la dinámica administrativa y pedagógica; observación y entrevistas sobre cómo son tratados los alumnos que faltan con frecuencia, incluso, sobre los registros FICAI (Ficha de Comunicação de Aluno Infreqüente). Además, se hicieron entrevistas con consejeros tutelares y con padres de alumnos faltantes y visitas domiciliares. Todos esos datos permitieron diseñar las condiciones que fomentan la infrecuencia así como las estrategias utilizadas por la escuela, la familia y la comunidad y por las demás instancias del Poder Público para evitar la evasión. Entre las medidas de prevención de la infrecuencia se destacan las políticas publicas como el Programa Bolsa Familia, más amplio y con gran poder de intervención; y las prácticas docentes y de gestión escolar, con menos impacto y eficiencia. En la escuela que se hizo la investigación, apenas 11% de los alumnos inscriptos en el Programa Bolsa Familia han mantenido frecuencia de 85% hasta el final del segundo año del beneficio, a pesar de la escuela borrar las faltas de varios alumnos. En las relaciones pedagógicas, el afecto es el recurso más usado, seguido de premiación a los alumnos que han tenido menos faltas. En el rescate de los alumnos se destacan las acciones de la supervisión de la escuela, del Consejo Tutelar, complementadas por el Ministerio Público. De 63 alumnos faltantes, todos con desnivel entre edad y grado, apenas seis volvieron definitivamente a la escuela. Todavía no hay estrategias específicas para el acogimiento a los que retornan a la escuela. La justicia profesoral se basa en la presencia como indicador objetivo e indiscutible para evaluar, clasificar y aprobar o aplazar a los alumnos. Se habló con los alumnos rescatados y con sus familias y se elaboraron las configuraciones familiares. A partir de ahí, se puede decir que las familias oscilan entre el deseo de que sus hijos vayan a la escuela y el deseo de que ingresen al mercado de trabajo. El “sentimiento de justicia” todavía necesita que se lo desenvuelva por parte de las familias de los niños y adolescentes y sea re-conocido el derecho a la educación escolar como un derecho justiciable para que se lo pueda reclamar. La omisión, negligencia y violación del derecho a la permanencia en la escuela son practicadas por todos las entidades comprometidas con la defensa de los derechos. En la relación “derecho del alumno a la permanencia en la escuela” como derecho humano y derecho público subjetivo versus “deber de Estado en cumplir” se destacan las acciones del Estado como siendo las más eficaces en el cumplimiento del deber de garantizar la permanencia de los niños y de los adolescentes en la escuela. A pesar de eso, en las prácticas escolares, se observa que el derecho a la permanencia en la escuela es privilegio para los que ya están en ella.

The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation and sustainability of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Swaziland in terms of the interplay between policy and practice. The study was undertaken in four schools in the Manzini region of Swaziland. The schools were purposively sampled on the basis of their location. The participants consisted of the head teacher, a teacher and a parent, and six learners from each of the schools. Two Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) officials were also included; a regional inspector for primary schools stationed at the Manzini Regional Education Offices (REOs) and a senior official stationed at MoET headquarters. A qualitative approach and a case study design were used. The participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview schedules, while the learners were engaged in focus group interviews at each school which were conducted according to a focus group interview schedule. Documents were also used as data sources. Data was analysed using a thematic and document analysis approach. The findings revealed a disconnection between policy and practice. FPE implementers are not well versed on the policies they are supposed to implement as they were not included in the policy-making process. Moreover, no consideration had been given to the legal framework underpinning FPE. It was found that the sustainability of FPE is threatened by certain indirect costs of schooling as well as the top-up fees that are being charged illegally by some schools, resulting in some learners dropping out of school – defeating the purpose of FPE and violating their right to access education. It would appear that the most contentious issue for FPE in Swaziland is the top-fee, although the head teachers were of the view that the FPE grant paid by government is inadequate for running schools and therefore top-up fees are necessary. Problems were also identified with the embezzling of school funds by head teachers. These issues have led to tension between schools and the MoET / Educational Leadership and Management / D. Ed. (Education Management)

The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation and sustainability of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Swaziland in terms of the interplay between policy and practice. The study was undertaken in four schools in the Manzini region of Swaziland. The schools were purposively sampled on the basis of their location. The participants consisted of the head teacher, a teacher and a parent, and six learners from each of the schools. Two Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) officials were also included; a regional inspector for primary schools stationed at the Manzini Regional Education Offices (REOs) and a senior official stationed at MoET headquarters. A qualitative approach and a case study design were used. The participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview schedules, while the learners were engaged in focus group interviews at each school which were conducted according to a focus group interview schedule. Documents were also used as data sources. Data was analysed using a thematic and document analysis approach. The findings revealed a disconnection between policy and practice. FPE implementers are not well versed on the policies they are supposed to implement as they were not included in the policy-making process. Moreover, no consideration had been given to the legal framework underpinning FPE. It was found that the sustainability of FPE is threatened by certain indirect costs of schooling as well as the top-up fees that are being charged illegally by some schools, resulting in some learners dropping out of school – defeating the purpose of FPE and violating their right to access education. It would appear that the most contentious issue for FPE in Swaziland is the top-fee, although the head teachers were of the view that the FPE grant paid by government is inadequate for running schools and therefore top-up fees are necessary. Problems were also identified with the embezzling of school funds by head teachers. These issues have led to tension between schools and the MoET. / Educational Leadership and Management / D. Ed. (Education Management)

The law governing children’s rights is part of international human rights law and therefore plays an important role in the protection of human rights. However, the effectiveness of the protection of children’s rights depends on a State’s compliance with children’s rights instruments and the implementation mechanisms within a given State. There are implementation mechanisms for the protection of children’s rights at the national, regional and international levels. The protection of children’s rights at these three levels is provided for by children’s rights instruments. The monitoring of particular implementation mechanisms with regard to children’s rights is effected by reporting processes through State Parties to domestic institutions, regional, and international organisations. The reports provided by States Parties must contain relevant information with regard to measures that States Parties have taken to implement children’s rights instruments. Inadequate implementation mechanisms for the protection of children’s rights have emerged as the greatest threat to the realisation of children’s rights. This means that the adoption of children’s rights instruments may yield results only when effective implementation steps are taken by the respective States Parties. There are four “cornerstone” principles that underpin the protection of children’s rights.1 These are: non-discrimination; the best interest of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and respect for the views of the child.2 This study will evaluate the right to education and the best interests of the child principle as covered in children’s rights instruments at regional and international levels.Education is a powerful tool in ensuring the protection and enjoyment of children’s rights. Therefore, ineffective implementation of the right to education may have adverse consequences for society. The best interest of the child principle is the guiding principle in all matters concerning children’s rights.3 Therefore, the application and effectiveness of the best interests of the child principle will ensure adequate protection of children’s rights. Further, the study will examine the right to education and the best interest of the child in order to demonstrate how the United Nations (UN) and regional human rights instruments have provided for their implementation. Ratification of children’s rights instruments is a symbolic gesture on the part of States Parties to the recognition and significance of protection of children’s rights. The compliance with children rights instruments or treaty obligations is crucial to ensure adequate protection of children’s rights. Thus, non-compliance with treaty obligations will have a negative impact on the protection of children’s rights. The evaluation of the right to education and the best interests of the child principle will be undertaken against the backdrop of children’s rights instruments. The children’s rights instruments are provided for by the United Nations (UN) and regional human rights systems. The dissertation will evaluate the right to education and the best interests of the child principle within three regional systems, namely, the European Union (EU), the Organisation of American States (OAS), and the African Union (AU). It will also examine pertinent case law within the three regional systems. Finally, the efficacy of implementation mechanisms for the enforcement of children’s rights will be assessed. / Public, Constitutional, and International Law / LLM

XIMENES, Salomão Barros. Fundo público e direito á educação: um estudo a partir dos gastos públicos da União e do Município de Fortaleza. 2006. 201f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Educação) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Faculdade de Educação, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação Brasileira, Fortaleza-CE, 2006. / Submitted by Liliane oliveira (morena.liliane@hotmail.com) on 2012-07-19T13:49:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_DIS_SBXIMENES.pdf: 1382491 bytes, checksum: b3045185df6358be6f6b655f9e8cefb9 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Josineide Góis(josineide@ufc.br) on 2012-07-23T16:45:21Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_DIS_SBXIMENES.pdf: 1382491 bytes, checksum: b3045185df6358be6f6b655f9e8cefb9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2012-07-23T16:45:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_DIS_SBXIMENES.pdf: 1382491 bytes, checksum: b3045185df6358be6f6b655f9e8cefb9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / It is not truth that the “minimum State”, consequence of the last cycle of economic liberalization, has as main characteristic a minor intervention in the economic area. Actually, in the point of view of Federal government funds, the State practically duplicated its size in the reform decade - 1990. These reforms radically changed the standard of distribution of the Government funds through a double movement: the “drying up” of the redistributive State’s side, incorporated to the original text of the Federal Constitution of 1988; and the “maximization” of State’s intervention through the direct remuneration of the capital. Considering that the constitutional guarantees for the financing of education, through the entailment of funds, represented an obstacle to the re-allocation of government resources, a series of measures had been taken to destroy them: the so called “unentailment of the Union funds”, the reduction of the under-entailment to basic education, the reiterated disobedience of the constitutional entailments, the tax policy that favors the not entailed tax revenues and the FUNDEF, that caused the acceleration of the municipal attendance with a fewer participation of the Union in the maintenance of basic education. These measures had great impact in the educational reality of Fortaleza, where the municipal system doubled its attendance in less than one decade, which made the gap between the existing physical organization and the right to a minimum standard of quality of education even worse. However, it is not possible to see a modification, similar to the occurred in the Union, in the standard of the distribution of municipal government funds. At the municipal level, the expenditures with education have remained steady in recent years. Therefore, the result of the last reforms was the gradual reduction of the cost per student in basic education, characterizing the “generalization with impoverishment” of the public education / Não é verdade que o “Estado-mínimo”, resultado do último ciclo de liberalização econômica, tenha como característica uma menor intervenção na esfera econômica. Na verdade, do ponto de vista do fundo público federal, o Estado praticamente duplicou seu tamanho na década de reformas – 1990. Estas reformas mudaram radicalmente o padrão de distribuição do fundo público através de um duplo movimento: o “enxugamento” da faceta redistributiva estatal, incorporada ao texto original da Constituição Federal de 1988; e a “maximização” da intervenção estatal através da remuneração direta do capital. Tendo em vista que as garantias constitucionais de financiamento para a educação, através de receita vinculada ao ensino, representavam um obstáculo ao redirecionamento do fundo público, um conjunto de medidas foram tomadas no sentido de demoli-las: a hoje denominada Desvinculação de Receitas da União, a redução da subvinculação ao ensino fundamental, os reiterados descumprimentos das vinculações constitucionais, a política fiscal e tributária que privilegia a arrecadação não vinculada ao ensino e o FUNDEF, que provocou a municipalização acelerada do atendimento com uma menor participação da União na manutenção do ensino fundamental. Essas medidas tiveram grande impacto na realidade educacional de Fortaleza, onde a rede municipal dobrou seu atendimento em menos de uma década, o que agravou as disparidades entre a rede física existente e o direito a um padrão mínimo de qualidade do ensino. No entanto, não é possível perceber uma mudança, similar à ocorrida na União, no padrão de distribuição do fundo público municipal. No município, as despesas com educação permaneceram estáveis nos últimos anos. Assim, o resultado das últimas reformas foi a progressiva diminuição do gasto-aluno no ensino fundamental, caracterizando a “universalização com pauperização” da educação pública

L’ « éducation tout au long de la vie », y compris dès la petite enfance, le primaire, le secondaire, la formation professionnelle, l’éducation supérieure et des adultes est devenue une priorité pour l’ONU (ODD 2030 numéro 4) et pour l’UE (moteur de la Stratégie 2020). La Commission envisage un Espace Européen d´Éducation, auprès le succès de l´Espace Européen d´Éducation Supérieur et l´Espace Européen de la Recherche. L´UE a fait de la mobilité son objectif et le programme Erasmus +, après trente ans, a bénéficié à plus de 9 millions de personnes. Pour autant, quels sont les droits dans le domaine de l’éducation des étudiants, parents, apprentis, directeurs d’établissements éducatifs publics et privés, professeurs, et des autres parties prenantes de la société civile (associations, fondations, entreprises) ? D’un point de vue juridique, les États de l’UE doivent suivre les obligations découlant de la DUDH, des Pactes, CDE, l’UNESCO, l’OIT, OMC, UNICEF, entre autres. Les États doivent répondre à ces obligations parmi les Examens Périodiques Universels, et suivre les recommandations du rapporteur spécial sur le droit à l’éducation. « L’acquis communautaire » a modelé le droit à l’éducation. Parmi les droits analysés se trouvent : le droit à la libre circulation des personnes, le droit à la libre prestation des services et d’établissement, des travailleurs, le principe de non-discrimination en raison de la nationalité, de l’égalité des genres, entre autres. Au regard de l’analyse de l’aspect international, de l’aspect européen et de l’aspect des droits de l’homme (application de la Charte des droits de l´homme et de la CEDH et sa jurisprudence), les citoyens de l’UE ont un droit à l’éducation au sein de l’UE comme droit de l’homme « sui generis » original et spécifique de l’UE. / Lifelong learning including early childhood, primary, secondary, vocational training, higher education and adult education has become a priority for the UN (ODD 2030, number 4) and for the EU (the driving force behind the 2020 Strategy). The Commission is considering a European Area of Education, with the success of the European Higher Education Area and the European Research Area. The EU has made mobility its goal and the Erasmus + program for thirty years has benefited more than 9 million people. However, what are the rights in the field of education for: students, parents, trainees, and directors of public and private educational institutions, teachers, and other stakeholders of civil society (associations, foundations, companies)? From a legal point of view, EU States must follow the obligations following from the UDHR, the Covenants, the CRC, UNESCO, ILO, WTO, UNICEF, among others. States must meet these obligations among the Universal Periodic Review, and follow the recommendations of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education. The « acquis communautaire » is shaping the right to education. Among the rights analyzed we find: rights of free movement of persons, services and establishment, workers, non-discrimination on grounds of nationality, and gender equality among others. After the analysis of the international aspect, the European aspect and the human rights aspect (application of the EU Charter of fundamental rights and the ECHR and its jurisprudence), EU citizens have a right to education in the EU as human right «sui generis» .

A dissertação trata do direito à educação, destacando o direito à permanência no ensino e englobando o direito à escola, os direitos na escola e o sentimento de justiça. Na fundamentação teórica, o conceito de “direito à educação” foi abordado a partir do ordenamento jurídico-educacional brasileiro (do Direito Positivo), de autores nacionais e reconhecidos internacionalmente, bem como na perspectiva dos Direitos Humanos. As principais categorias de análise foram o conteúdo do direito à educação, a eficácia social e a justicialidade. A parte empírica foi realizada em uma escola pública de Porto Alegre, através de estudo de caso, no qual foram apresentados: caracterização institucional, análise do Regimento e do Projeto Pedagógico, com destaque para os itens “direitos e deveres” dos alunos e dos professores; análise estatística de freqüência, permanência e rendimento escolar; observações da dinâmica administrativa e pedagógica; observação e entrevistas sobre o tratamento dos alunos infreqüentes, inclusive sobre os registros na FICAI (Ficha de Comunicação de Aluno Infreqüente). Ademais, realizaram-se entrevistas com conselheiros tutelares, entrevistas com pais de alunos infreqüentes, com visitas a domicílio. Todos estes dados permitiram traçar as condições que promovem a infreqüência bem como as estratégias utilizadas pela escola, pelas famílias e a comunidade, e pelas demais instâncias do Poder Público para evitar a evasão. Dentre as medidas preventivas da infreqüência destacam-se as políticas públicas como o Programa Bolsa Família, com maior poder e abrangência de intervenção; e as práticas docentes e de gestão escolar, com menor impacto e eficácia. Na escola estudada, apenas 11% dos alunos inscritos no Programa Bolsa Família mantiveram a freqüência de 85% até o final do segundo ano de benefício, apesar de a escolar apagar as faltas de vários alunos. Nas relações pedagógicas, o afeto é o recurso mais utilizado, seguido da premiação aos alunos que tiveram menor número de faltas. No resgate dos alunos, destacam-se as ações da supervisão da escola, do Conselho Tutelar, complementadas pelo Ministério Público. De 63 alunos infreqüentes, todos com distorção idade-série, apenas seis voltaram definitivamente a freqüentar a escola. Ainda não há estratégia específica para o acolhimento dos retornados à escola. A justiça professoral se apóia na freqüência, como indicador objetivo e indiscutível para avaliar, classificar e aprovar/reprovar os alunos. Ouvidos os alunos resgatados e suas famílias e elaboradas as configurações familiares, é possível dizer que as famílias oscilam entre o desejo que os filhos freqüentem a escola e o desejo que eles ingressem no mercado de trabalho. O “sentimento de justiça” ainda precisa ser desenvolvido pelas famílias das crianças e adolescentes e (re)conhecido o direito à educação escolar como um direito justiciável, para que possa ser reivindicado. A omissão, negligência e violação do direito à permanência na escola é praticada por todos os entes comprometidos com a defesa dos direitos. Na relação “direito do aluno à permanência na escola” como direito humano e direito público subjetivo versus “dever do Estado em cumprir”, destacam-se as ações do Estado como as mais efetivas no cumprimento do dever de garantir a permanência de crianças e adolescentes na escola. Contudo, nas práticas escolares verifica-se que o direito à permanência na escola é privilégio daqueles que nela já estão inseridos e que não precisam reivindicar este direito. / This thesis discusses the right to education, highlighting the right to stay in school and covering the right to school(ing), the rights at school and the notion of justice. In specialized literature, the concept of ‘right to education’ has been approached considering Brazilian legal and educational structure (from Positive Right), national and internationally acknowledged writers and the Human Rights perspective. The main categories for analysis were the right to education, social efficiency and justiciability. The empirical part of the work took place at a public school in the city of Porto Alegre with an in-depth case study that presents: description of the institution; analysis of the school bylaws (focusing students and teachers’ rights and duties) and the pedagogical (curriculum) project; statistics on attendance, permanence and school progress; observation of administrative and pedagogical dynamics; observation and interviews regarding the procedures undertaken with low attendance rates, including the FICAI (Student Absence Communication Form) records. Besides, there were interviews with Children’s Rights Council advisors, and interviews with the parents of students with low attendance, through home visitations. All this data allowed to outline the conditions that lead to low attendance as well as the strategies to reduce drop-out rates used by the school, the families, the community, and other governmental agencies. Amongst the procedures created to prevent students’ low attendance, the Programa Bolsa Família (Family Allowance Program) stands out as an effective public policy for its wider intervention capacity; some school management and teaching practices, seemly with lower impact and effectiveness were also analyzed. Nevertheless, at the studied school, at the end of the second year on the Program, only 11% of the students enrolled in the Programa Bolsa Família could keep the required 85% attendance rate, in spite of the fact that the school had erased some absences of several students. In pedagogical relations (teacher’s attention to class and individual student), affection is the most used resource, followed by rewards offered to the students with the lowest number of absences. For the rescue of absent students, there were actions taken by the school supervisor and by the Conselho Tutelar (Children’s Rights Council), complemented by those from the State school administration department. Out of 63 students with low attendance rates — all of them over-aged for the grade of enrolment — only six returned definitely to school. At this school, there isn’t yet any specific strategy for the reception of those who return to school. Teachers’ justice is based mainly on attendance, which is considered as the objective and unquestionable indicator to evaluate, rank and/or pass/fail the students. After hearing the ‘rescued’ students and their families, and figuring out their family situation, it is possible to say that families balance between the wish that their children attend to school and the wish that they start working as early as possible. The ‘notion of justice’ still needs to be developed by the families, if the right to school is to be known and acknowledged as a justiciable right – i.e. a right that can be reclaimed as such. Omission, negligence and violation of the right to stay in school are common practices among those who are committed to defend children’s rights and the right to education. Considering the ‘student’s right to stay in school’ as a human right and as “subjective public right” versus the ‘State’s obligations/duties’, the latter (proper State actions) can be highlighted as the most effective ones for accomplishing continuous school attendance (the permanence of children and teenagers in school). However, among the school practices, the right to stay in school ends up being a privilege of those who are already enrolled and attending school, best said, the right to schooling belongs to those who do not need to reclaim it. / Esta disertación trata del derecho a la educación, dando destaque al derecho a la permanencia en el sistema educativo, englobando el derecho a la escuela, los derechos en la escuela y el sentimiento de justicia. En el marco teórico se trabajó el concepto de “derecho a la educación”, a partir de la ordenación jurídica educativa brasilera (del Derecho Positivo), de autores nacionales y reconocidos en ámbito internacional, así como en la perspectiva de los Derechos Humanos. Las principales categorías conceptuales para el análisis fueron: el contenido del derecho a la educación, su eficacia social y justiciable. La parte empírica se hizo en una escuela pública de Porto Alegre, a través de un estudio de caso hecho en profundidad, en el que se presentaron: la caracterización institucional, el análisis del Estatuto y del Proyecto Pedagógico, destacando “derechos y deberes” de los alumnos y de los maestros; el análisis estadístico de presencia, permanencia y aprovechamiento escolar; observaciones de la dinámica administrativa y pedagógica; observación y entrevistas sobre cómo son tratados los alumnos que faltan con frecuencia, incluso, sobre los registros FICAI (Ficha de Comunicação de Aluno Infreqüente). Además, se hicieron entrevistas con consejeros tutelares y con padres de alumnos faltantes y visitas domiciliares. Todos esos datos permitieron diseñar las condiciones que fomentan la infrecuencia así como las estrategias utilizadas por la escuela, la familia y la comunidad y por las demás instancias del Poder Público para evitar la evasión. Entre las medidas de prevención de la infrecuencia se destacan las políticas publicas como el Programa Bolsa Familia, más amplio y con gran poder de intervención; y las prácticas docentes y de gestión escolar, con menos impacto y eficiencia. En la escuela que se hizo la investigación, apenas 11% de los alumnos inscriptos en el Programa Bolsa Familia han mantenido frecuencia de 85% hasta el final del segundo año del beneficio, a pesar de la escuela borrar las faltas de varios alumnos. En las relaciones pedagógicas, el afecto es el recurso más usado, seguido de premiación a los alumnos que han tenido menos faltas. En el rescate de los alumnos se destacan las acciones de la supervisión de la escuela, del Consejo Tutelar, complementadas por el Ministerio Público. De 63 alumnos faltantes, todos con desnivel entre edad y grado, apenas seis volvieron definitivamente a la escuela. Todavía no hay estrategias específicas para el acogimiento a los que retornan a la escuela. La justicia profesoral se basa en la presencia como indicador objetivo e indiscutible para evaluar, clasificar y aprobar o aplazar a los alumnos. Se habló con los alumnos rescatados y con sus familias y se elaboraron las configuraciones familiares. A partir de ahí, se puede decir que las familias oscilan entre el deseo de que sus hijos vayan a la escuela y el deseo de que ingresen al mercado de trabajo. El “sentimiento de justicia” todavía necesita que se lo desenvuelva por parte de las familias de los niños y adolescentes y sea re-conocido el derecho a la educación escolar como un derecho justiciable para que se lo pueda reclamar. La omisión, negligencia y violación del derecho a la permanencia en la escuela son practicadas por todos las entidades comprometidas con la defensa de los derechos. En la relación “derecho del alumno a la permanencia en la escuela” como derecho humano y derecho público subjetivo versus “deber de Estado en cumplir” se destacan las acciones del Estado como siendo las más eficaces en el cumplimiento del deber de garantizar la permanencia de los niños y de los adolescentes en la escuela. A pesar de eso, en las prácticas escolares, se observa que el derecho a la permanencia en la escuela es privilegio para los que ya están en ella.