Les mares et lacs de fonte de pergélisol (ou lac de thermokarst) sont désormais parmi les écosystèmes d’eau douce les plus communs en région arctique. Il existe deux types de lac de thermokarst en fonction de la composition du sol dans lequel celui-ci se forme (palse, lithalse). Ces lacs constituent des milieux complexes présentant une activité microbienne élevée qui produit une grande quantité de gaz à effet de serre. D’un point de vue écologique, il est essentiel d’approfondir nos connaissances sur les forces contrôlant cette activité microbienne. En général, les virus participent à divers processus écologiques essentiels notamment en influençant le recyclage des nutriments, les cycles biogéochimiques et la dynamique des populations microbiennes. Par contre, très peu d’études se sont intéressées aux populations virales dans les lacs de fonte. Ainsi, les objectifs principaux de ce projet sont (1) d’établir la diversité virale dans deux types de lacs de thermokarst en visant deux familles de virus en particulier (myovirus, chlorovirus), et (2) d’isoler un cyanophage à partir de ces milieux. Une approche par PCR a permis d’obtenir la composition des assemblages viraux et de conclure que ces derniers variaient en fonction de la distribution de leurs hôtes, qui eux étaient influencés par les paramètres environnementaux. De plus, deux nouveaux cyanophages appartenant à la famille des Myoviridae ont également été isolés d’un lac subarctique et leur génome séquencé. Des analyses génomiques ont démontré la présence de deux gènes auxiliaires métaboliques, suggérant des évènements de transferts horizontaux entre les virus et leur hôte. Bref, cette étude apporte de nouvelles connaissances concernant l’écologie et la biologie des communautés virales en milieu subarctique. / Arctic regions are undergoing rapid changes due to global warming. Permafrost thawing and erosion is accelerating, creating small and shallow lakes, called thermokarst lakes, that are now widespread in Arctic landscapes. Thaw lakes can be classified in two groups depending on the landscape (palsa, lithalsa), and this has a great impact on their limnological properties. These freshwater ecosystems are highly stratified and harbour microbial assemblages that are important contributors of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. In general, the two major groups involved in the top-down control of microbial populations are either grazers or viruses. Here, we focused our study on viral communities, as it is now widely recognized that viruses are key components in all aquatic ecosystems. Although they have a large impact on nutrient cycles and host evolution and dynamics, viruses in high latitudes freshwater ecosystems remain poorly characterized. The aims of this study were: (1) to determine viral diversity in different types of thermokarst lakes by targeting specific families of viruses; and (2) to isolate a cyanophage from a subarctic lake. Using a PCR-based approach followed by high-throughput sequencing, we characterized the viral community composition in contrasting subarctic waterbodies. Comparisons suggested that viral diversity was primarily influenced by landscape type, which affects the host communities. Also, we isolated and sequenced the genome of two novel cyanomyoviruses. Analysis of these genomes revealed the presence of two auxiliary metabolic genes, suggesting horizontal gene transfer events between viruses and hosts. Overall, this study sheds light into the dynamics and the composition of viral communities in high-latitude freshwater environments.

Projected air and ground temperatures are expected to be higher in Arctic and sub-Arcticlatitudes and with temperatures already close to the limit where permafrost can exist,resistance against degradation is low. With thawing permafrost, the landscape is modifiedwith depression in which thermokarst lakes emerge. In permafrost soils a considerableamount of soil organic carbon is stored, with the potential of altering climate even furtherif expansion and formation of new thermokarst lakes emerge, as decay releasesgreenhouse gases (C02 and CH4) to the atmosphere. Analyzing the spatial distribution andmorphometry over time of thermokarst lakes and other water bodies, is of importance inaccurately predict carbon budget and feedback mechanisms, as well as to assess futurelandscape layout and these features interaction. Different types of high-spatial resolutionaerial and satellite imageries from 1963, 1975, 2003, 2010 and 2015, were used in bothpre- and post-classification change detection analyses. Using object oriented segmentationin eCognition combined with manual adjustments, resulted in digitalized water bodies>28m2 from which direction of change and morphometric values were extracted. Thequantity of thermokarst lakes and other water bodies was in 1963 n=92, with succeedingyears as a trend decreased in numbers, until 2010-2015 when eleven water bodies wereadded in 2015 (n=74 to n=85). In 1963-2003, area of these water bodies decreased with50 651m2 (189 446-138 795m2) and continued to decrease in 2003-2015 ending at 129337m2. Limnicity decreased from 19.9% in 1963 to 14.6% in 2003 (-5.3%). In 2010 and2015 13.7-13.6%. The late increase in water bodies differs from an earlier hypothesis thatsporadic permafrost regions experience decrease in both area and quantity of thermokarstlakes and water bodies. During 1963-2015, land gain has been in dominance of the ratiobetween the two competing processes of expansion and drainage. In 1963-1975, 55/45%,followed by 90/10% in 1975-2003. After major drainage events, land loss increased to62/38% in 2010-2015. Drainage and infilling rates, calculated for 15 shorelines werevaried across both landscape and parts of shorelines, with in average 0.17/0.15/0.14m/yr.Except for 1963-1975 when rate of change in average was in opposite direction (-0.09m/yr.), likely due to evident expansion of a large thermokarst lake. Using a squaregrid, distribution of water bodies was determined, with an indistinct cluster located in NEand central parts. Especially for water bodies <250m2, which is the dominant area classthroughout 1963-2015 ranging from n=39-51. With a heterogeneous composition of bothsmall and large thermokarst lakes, and with both expansion and drainage altering thelandscape in Tavvavuoma, both positive and negative climate feedback mechanisms are inplay - given that sporadic permafrost still exist.

The Arctic is warming rapidly as a result of global climate change. Permafrost - permanently frozen ground - plays a critical role in shaping arctic ecosystems and stores nearly one half of the global soil organic matter. Therefore, disturbance of permafrost will likely impact the carbon and related biogeochemical processes on local and global scales. In the Alaskan Arctic, fire and thermokarst (permafrost thaw) have become more common and have been hypothesized to accelerate the hydrological export of inorganic nutrients and sediment, as well as biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC), which may alter ecosystem processes of impacted streams. The biogeochemical characteristics of two tundra streams were quantified several years after the development of gully thermokarst features. The observed responses in sediment and nutrient loading four years after gully formation were more subtle than expected, likely due to the stabilization of the features and the dynamics controlling the hydrologic connectivity between the gully and the stream. The response of impacted streams may depend on the presence of water tracks, particularly their location in reference to the thermokarst and downslope aquatic ecosystem. We found evidence of altered ecosystem structure (benthic standing stocks, algal biomass, and macroinvertebrate composition) and function (stream metabolism and nutrient uptake), which may be attributable to the previous years' allochthonous gully inputs. The patterns between the reference and impacted reaches were different for both stream sites. Rates of ecosystem production and respiration and benthic chlorophyll-a in the impacted reaches of the alluvial and peat-lined streams were significantly lower and greater, respectively, compared to the reference reaches, even though minimal differences in sediment and nutrient loading were detected. Rates of ammonium and soluble reactive phosphorus uptake were consistently lower in the impacted reach at the alluvial site. The observed differences in metabolism, nutrient uptake and macroinvertebrate community composition suggest that even though the geochemical signal diminished, gully features may have long-lasting impacts on the biological aspects of downstream ecosystem function. In a separate study, a suite of streams impacted by thermokarst and fire were sampled seasonally and spatially. Regional differences in water chemistry and BDOC were more significant than the influences of fire or thermokarst, likely due to differences in glacial age and elevation of the landscape. The streams of the older (>700 ka), lower elevation landscape contained higher concentrations of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus and DOC and lower BDOC compared to the streams of the younger (50-200 ka) landscapes that had lower dissolved nutrient and DOC quantity of higher biodegradability. The findings in this dissertation indicate that arctic stream ecosystems are more resilient than we expected to small-scale, rapidly stabilizing gully thermokarst features and disturbance caused by fire. Scaling the results of these types of studies should consider the size of thermokarst features in relation to the size of impacted rivers and streams. It remains to be determined how general permafrost thaw will affect the structure and function of arctic streams in the future.

Because of climate change and resource development there is an ongoing increase in the attention directed towards high latitude areas. Over the last years, warming in the Arctic has accelerated quickly. The warming climate can possibly lead to thawing of ground ice, which in turn leads to alterations of the cryosphere. This can have a huge influence on the terrestrial hydrology of the Arctic and, more specifically, on the presence and distribution of lakes in arctic regions since both are coupled to subsurface ice. In this thesis data from remote sensing were used to look at the change in the size distribution of lakes for the Nadym catchment in northern Russia. The aim was to find out if there has been an increase or decrease in the number of lakes in the area over the past years. Results suggest that there were 229 lakes less (representing a 4% decrease) in 2007–2009 compared to 1987, indicating that lakes are slowly disappearing. Also, the total lake surface area decreased with 5%. Almost half of the lakes that disappeared (49%) can be found among the smallest lakes ranging between 10–20 ha. In the entire catchment this size class was also found to be the class with by far the highest number of lakes.

A first approximation of ground ice volume for the area surrounding Eureka, Nunavut, indicates that it comprises 30.8% of the upper 5.9 m of permafrost. Volume depends on the type of ice examined, ranging from 1.8 to 69.0% in different regions of the study area. Excess ice makes up 17.7% of the total volume of frozen materials in the study area. Melt of ground ice in the past has produced thermokarst features which include ground subsidence of up to 3.2 m, formation of tundra ponds, degradation of ice wedges, thaw slumps greater than 50 m across, gullying, and numerous active layer detachment slides. With a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the rise in mean annual temperatures for the area is projected to be 4.9 to 6.6°C, which would lengthen the thaw season and increase thaw depths by up to 70 cm. The expected geomorphic changes to the landscape are discussed.

This thesis investigates the geomorphology of retrogressive thaw slumps and active layer slides on Herschel Island, northern Yukon Territory. In particular, it examines the formation and morphology of both landforms, and the ground ice characteristics of retrogressive thaw slumps. During 1988-1989 a number of retrogressive thaw slumps and active layer slides were surveyed and monitored. Field and laboratory investigations involved (1) documentation of landform distribution, setting and morphology, (2) examination of processes of landform formation, and (3) the examination of cryostratigraphy, ground ice characteristics and material properties. / Retrogressive thaw slumps developed in areas of low to moderate slopes underlain by a variety of sediments with ice contents up to 4500% (on a dry weight basis). Slump headwall retreat rates of up to 19.5 m/yr were recorded. By comparison, active layer slides developed on steeper slopes underlain mainly by marine silts and clays. The sediments exposed in the slide floors and headwalls displayed no visible ground ice, but moisture contents were between 15-35%. Retrogressive thaw slumps and active layer slides form by entirely different processes. However, they do occur in close association and are influenced by many of the same parameters.

The semi-arid and arid Andes of South America are characterized by large areas with glacial and periglacial environments. This study focusses on the distribution of glacial and periglacial landforms in the Las Veguitas catchment, Cordillera Frontal, Argentina. A detailed geomorphological map of the Las Veguitas catchment is presented, based on high-resolution elevation data (ALOSPALSAR), satellite imagery (Landsat 8, World View 2, Google Earth), and field studies. First, a general topographical analysis is performed for the entire Las Veguitas catchment, including elevation, slope and aspect characteristics. Second, the altitudinal range of glacial features (glaciers, debris covered glaciers and thermokarst ponds on glaciers) and the altitudinal range and predominant aspect of periglacial features (active, inactive and fossil rock glaciers) are analyzed. Currently, glaciers are restricted to ≥ 4300m, but moraines are identified to elevations of c. 3200m. Active rock glaciers extend down to c. 3450m and have a more southern aspect then both inactive and fossil rock glaciers. Third, a temporal analysis has been performed of glacier and rock glacier flow using a time series of remote sensing images. Glacier flow traced by the displacement of thermokarst lake features (2006-2016) had a mean velocity of 6.66m/yr. The mean velocity of rock glaciers (1963-2017) was much lower at 0.63m/yr. Finally, the thesis discusses limitations and uncertainties in study methods and suggestions for further research activities.

Rapid warming in northern latitudes will lead to permafrost thaw and subsequent carbon remobilisa­tion and release to the atmosphere. To incorporate the permafrost carbon climate feedback in globalEarth System Models, it is of importance to know the carbon stored in the circum­Arctic permafrostregion as accurate and precise as possible. Whereas soil, Yedoma and delta carbon stocks are alreadyquantified, deep carbon stocks for vast areas of the current permafrost region are still unaccountedfor. The aim of this Master thesis project is to estimate the deep carbon stock (>3m) for Quaternarydeposits outside the known reservoirs. Therefore, 363 boreholes and exposures were compiled fromthe scientific literature. 244 sites provide profile descriptions (depositional environment, depth andthickness) and another 119 sites contain data to calculate carbon densities (ground ice content, coarsefraction (>1cm and/or >2mm), bulk density and total organic carbon). Data gaps were filled usinglocal, regional and global average facies values from the compiled dataset. For spatial upscaling,key regions are defined using the permafrost zone, overburden thickness and ice content. The fielddata compiled here shows disagreements with the Circum­Arctic Map of Permafrost and Ground­Iceconditions (Brown et al. 2002), which should be updated especially in thin and ice­poor regions. Atotal C stock of 1698 ±255 PgC is estimated for 3­25m in Quaternary deposits of the circum­Arcitcpermafrost region, next to the Yedoma domain (327 ­ 466 PgC, Strauss et al. 2017) and deltas (41 ­151 PgC, Hugelius et al. 2014). About 70% of the carbon is stored within 3­10m (1200 ±238 PgC).Due to a publication bias towards thick and organic­rich sediments in the literature, C stocks calcualtedhere might be overestimated. Additional to the Yedoma domain, 309 ±99 PgC are stored in ice­richdeposits of the continuous permafrost zone, a regions especially prone to thermokarst and deep carbonremobilisation. Thermokarst, thermo­fluvial erosion along rivers and coasts as well as carbon releasethrough inland water systems presents possible release mechanisms for stored carbon. The permafrostcarbon estimate determined here doubles the known carbon reservoir in the permafrost region and em­phasises the importance for possible deep carbon release with future permafrost thawing.

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