Introdução. O receptor epidérmico humano 2 (Her-2) e a topoisomerase-IIα (T2A) são dois marcadores biológicos importantes, ambos tendo um valor prognóstico e preditivo potencial em pacientes com tumores sólidos. A amplificação dos genes Her- 2 e T2A são eventos independentes, embora o último seja mais frequente em tumores com amplificação do Her-2 (34-90%), do que em tumores sem amplificação do Her-2 (5-10%). Existe uma melhor correlação entre amplificação e superexpressão do Her-2 no câncer de mama (CM) do que em outros tumores. No entanto, no CM, a correlação entre amplificação e superexpressão da T2A tem sido inconsistente, e existe uma carência de tais dados em outros tipos de tumores. A expressão da proteína T2A tem mostrado uma boa correlação com o índice de proliferação tumoral, particularmente no CM. Objetivos. Artigo 1: Sintetizar o conhecimento atual sobre a importância dos marcadores Her-2 e T2A nos tumores sólidos. Artigo 2: Investigar a prevalência de amplificação e superexpressão do Her-2 e da T2A, a correlação entre estas variáveis e a correlação entre as variáveis e estágio clínico, em amostras de câncer de ovário (CO) fixadas em parafina. Artigo 3: Investigar a prevalência de amplificação da T2A, assim como a correlação entre esta variável e a expressão da proteína T2A e do marcador de proliferação celular Ki-67, em amostras de CM fixadas em parafina, mostrando uma amplificação do Her-2. Métodos. Artigo 1: Os dados foram identificados através de busca em bases de dados eletrônicas (medline), livros de resumos de congressos e referências de artigos de revisão e originais. Artigo 2: 73 amostras de CO foram testadas para amplificação e superexpressão do Her-2 e T2A, por hibridização in situ fluorescente (FISH) e imuno-histoquímica (IHC), respectivamente. Artigo 3: 103 amostras de CM, com amplificação do Her-2, foram testadas para amplificação do gene T2A (por FISH) e superexpressão das proteínas T2A e Ki-67 (por IHC). Resultados. Artigo 2: Com base nos pontos de corte >1.5 e >2 (relação cópias/CEP17), as taxas de amplificação do Her-2 foram 15/64(23.4%) e 8/64(12.5%), versus 16/64(25%) e 5/64(7.8 %) para a T2A. Encontramos somente 3/72(4.2%) casos de superexpressão do Her-2(3+), contra 15/70(21.4%) para a T2A (marcagem em >10% das células). Foi observada uma modesta correlação entre amplificação e superexpressão da T2A (p= 0.01) e uma forte correlação entre amplificação da T2A e do Her-2, quando analisados como variáveis contínuas (p<0.001). A amplificação da T2A correlacionou-se com estágio FIGO avançado (p= 0.02). Artigo 3: Uma amplificação do gene T2A foi observada em 36.9%(38/103) dos casos. Os níveis de amplificação do Her-2 (número de cópias) não se correlacionaram com a amplificação da T2A. A porcentagem média de células positivas para a T2A (por IHC) foi de 5% e 10%, para casos T2A não-amplificados e amplificados, respectivamente. Uma correlação fraca, mas ainda significativa, foi observada entre amplificação do gene T2A e porcentagem de células T2A-positivas por IHC (Spearman=0.23, p=0.02); a correlação entre estas duas variáveis foi mais forte em tumores Ki-67 positivos. Conclusões. Artigo 2 : A avaliação da amplificação e da superexpressão do Her-2 e da T2A, por FISH e IHC, respectivamente, é realizável em amostras de CO. Foi observada uma boa correlação entre a amplificação dos genes Her-2 e T2A, mas a correlação entre amplificação do gene e superexpressão da proteína foi fraca para ambos marcadores. As taxas de amplificação dos genes Her-2 e T2A são mais elevadas quando não é realizada correção para o número de cópias do CEP17. Parece existir uma boa correlação entre amplificação da T2A e estágio clínico avançado. Estudos adicionais serão necessários para determinar o melhor ponto de corte para estes marcadores. Artigo 3: Contrariamente ao Her-2, a amplificação do gene T2A não parece necessariamente levar à superexpressão da proteína no CM. Outros fatores, como o índice de proliferação celular, podem interferir na síntese da proteína T2A. Embora a maioria dos casos de aberrações do gene T2A ocorram em tumores Her-2 positivos, os níveis de amplificação do Her-2 não se correlacionaram com a amplificação do gene T2A. / Background. The human epidermal receptor 2 (Her-2) and topoisomerase-IIα (T2A) are two important biomarkers, with potential prognostic and predictive value in patients with solid tumours. Her-2 and T2A gene amplification are separate events, although the latter is more frequently seen in Her-2 amplified (34-90%) than in Her-2 non-amplified (5-10%) tumours. There is a better correlation between Her-2 amplification and protein overexpression in breast cancer (BC) than in other tumour types. Nevertheless, there is a doubtful correlation between T2A amplification and overexpression in BC, with virtually no data available in other tumour types. In BC, the expression of the T2A protein has shown a good correlation with tumour proliferation rate. Objectives. Article 1: To summarise the available literature on Her-2 and T2A in solid tumours. Article 2: To investigate the prevalence of Her-2 and T2A amplification and overexpression, the correlation between these variables and with clinical stage, in paraffin-embedded samples of ovarian cancer (OC). Article 3: To investigate the prevalence of T2A amplification, as well as the correlation between this variable and the expression of T2A protein and the proliferation marker Ki-67, in paraffinembedded samples of Her-2 amplified BC. Methods. Article 1: The data were identified through search in electronic databases (medline), abstract books and references from review and original articles. Article 2: 73 samples of OC were tested for Her-2 and T2A amplification and overexpression, by fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC), respectively. Article 3: 103 samples of Her-2 amplified BC were tested for T2A amplification (by FISH) and overexpression (by IHC), and Ki-67 expression (by IHC). Results. Article 2: Based on cut-offs of ≥1.5 and ≥2 (ratio copies/CEP17), amplification rates for Her-2 were 15/64(23.4%) and 8/64(12.5%) versus 16/64(25%) and 5/64(7.8%) for T2A. We found only 3/72(4.2%) cases of Her-2 overexpression(3+) versus 15/70(21.4%) for T2A (staining in >10% of the cells). There was a modest correlation between T2A amplification and overexpression (p=0.01) and a strong correlation between T2A and Her-2 amplification when these markers were analysed as continuous variables (p<0.001). T2A amplification significantly correlated with advanced FIGO stage (p=0.02). Article 3: T2A gene amplification was observed in 36.9%(38/103) of the Her-2 amplified samples. Her-2 amplification level (i.e. copy number) was not predictive of T2A amplification. The median percentage of T2A positive cells for T2A non-amplified and amplified cases were 5% and 10%, respectively. A weak but still significant correlation was observed between T2A gene amplification level and percentage of positively stained cells (Spearman=0.23, p=0.02), the observed correlation being higher in patients with positive staining for Ki-67. Conclusions. Article 2: The assessment of Her-2 and T2A amplification and overexpression by FISH and IHC, respectively, is feasible in OC samples. There was a good correlation between Her-2 and T2A gene amplification, but the correlation between gene amplification and protein overexpression was poor for both markers. Amplification rates were higher in the absence of correction for the number of copies of the CEP17. Finally, we found a good correlation between T2A amplification and advanced disease stage. Further studies should aim to determine the optimal cut-offs for these markers. Article 3: Contrary to Her-2, T2A gene amplification does not always lead to protein overexpression in BC. Other factors, especially tumour proliferation rate, may interfere with the T2A protein status. Although the majority of the cases of T2A gene aberrations are seen in Her-2 positive tumours, the level of Her-2 amplification does not predict for T2A amplification.

Introdução. O receptor epidérmico humano 2 (Her-2) e a topoisomerase-IIα (T2A) são dois marcadores biológicos importantes, ambos tendo um valor prognóstico e preditivo potencial em pacientes com tumores sólidos. A amplificação dos genes Her- 2 e T2A são eventos independentes, embora o último seja mais frequente em tumores com amplificação do Her-2 (34-90%), do que em tumores sem amplificação do Her-2 (5-10%). Existe uma melhor correlação entre amplificação e superexpressão do Her-2 no câncer de mama (CM) do que em outros tumores. No entanto, no CM, a correlação entre amplificação e superexpressão da T2A tem sido inconsistente, e existe uma carência de tais dados em outros tipos de tumores. A expressão da proteína T2A tem mostrado uma boa correlação com o índice de proliferação tumoral, particularmente no CM. Objetivos. Artigo 1: Sintetizar o conhecimento atual sobre a importância dos marcadores Her-2 e T2A nos tumores sólidos. Artigo 2: Investigar a prevalência de amplificação e superexpressão do Her-2 e da T2A, a correlação entre estas variáveis e a correlação entre as variáveis e estágio clínico, em amostras de câncer de ovário (CO) fixadas em parafina. Artigo 3: Investigar a prevalência de amplificação da T2A, assim como a correlação entre esta variável e a expressão da proteína T2A e do marcador de proliferação celular Ki-67, em amostras de CM fixadas em parafina, mostrando uma amplificação do Her-2. Métodos. Artigo 1: Os dados foram identificados através de busca em bases de dados eletrônicas (medline), livros de resumos de congressos e referências de artigos de revisão e originais. Artigo 2: 73 amostras de CO foram testadas para amplificação e superexpressão do Her-2 e T2A, por hibridização in situ fluorescente (FISH) e imuno-histoquímica (IHC), respectivamente. Artigo 3: 103 amostras de CM, com amplificação do Her-2, foram testadas para amplificação do gene T2A (por FISH) e superexpressão das proteínas T2A e Ki-67 (por IHC). Resultados. Artigo 2: Com base nos pontos de corte >1.5 e >2 (relação cópias/CEP17), as taxas de amplificação do Her-2 foram 15/64(23.4%) e 8/64(12.5%), versus 16/64(25%) e 5/64(7.8 %) para a T2A. Encontramos somente 3/72(4.2%) casos de superexpressão do Her-2(3+), contra 15/70(21.4%) para a T2A (marcagem em >10% das células). Foi observada uma modesta correlação entre amplificação e superexpressão da T2A (p= 0.01) e uma forte correlação entre amplificação da T2A e do Her-2, quando analisados como variáveis contínuas (p<0.001). A amplificação da T2A correlacionou-se com estágio FIGO avançado (p= 0.02). Artigo 3: Uma amplificação do gene T2A foi observada em 36.9%(38/103) dos casos. Os níveis de amplificação do Her-2 (número de cópias) não se correlacionaram com a amplificação da T2A. A porcentagem média de células positivas para a T2A (por IHC) foi de 5% e 10%, para casos T2A não-amplificados e amplificados, respectivamente. Uma correlação fraca, mas ainda significativa, foi observada entre amplificação do gene T2A e porcentagem de células T2A-positivas por IHC (Spearman=0.23, p=0.02); a correlação entre estas duas variáveis foi mais forte em tumores Ki-67 positivos. Conclusões. Artigo 2 : A avaliação da amplificação e da superexpressão do Her-2 e da T2A, por FISH e IHC, respectivamente, é realizável em amostras de CO. Foi observada uma boa correlação entre a amplificação dos genes Her-2 e T2A, mas a correlação entre amplificação do gene e superexpressão da proteína foi fraca para ambos marcadores. As taxas de amplificação dos genes Her-2 e T2A são mais elevadas quando não é realizada correção para o número de cópias do CEP17. Parece existir uma boa correlação entre amplificação da T2A e estágio clínico avançado. Estudos adicionais serão necessários para determinar o melhor ponto de corte para estes marcadores. Artigo 3: Contrariamente ao Her-2, a amplificação do gene T2A não parece necessariamente levar à superexpressão da proteína no CM. Outros fatores, como o índice de proliferação celular, podem interferir na síntese da proteína T2A. Embora a maioria dos casos de aberrações do gene T2A ocorram em tumores Her-2 positivos, os níveis de amplificação do Her-2 não se correlacionaram com a amplificação do gene T2A. / Background. The human epidermal receptor 2 (Her-2) and topoisomerase-IIα (T2A) are two important biomarkers, with potential prognostic and predictive value in patients with solid tumours. Her-2 and T2A gene amplification are separate events, although the latter is more frequently seen in Her-2 amplified (34-90%) than in Her-2 non-amplified (5-10%) tumours. There is a better correlation between Her-2 amplification and protein overexpression in breast cancer (BC) than in other tumour types. Nevertheless, there is a doubtful correlation between T2A amplification and overexpression in BC, with virtually no data available in other tumour types. In BC, the expression of the T2A protein has shown a good correlation with tumour proliferation rate. Objectives. Article 1: To summarise the available literature on Her-2 and T2A in solid tumours. Article 2: To investigate the prevalence of Her-2 and T2A amplification and overexpression, the correlation between these variables and with clinical stage, in paraffin-embedded samples of ovarian cancer (OC). Article 3: To investigate the prevalence of T2A amplification, as well as the correlation between this variable and the expression of T2A protein and the proliferation marker Ki-67, in paraffinembedded samples of Her-2 amplified BC. Methods. Article 1: The data were identified through search in electronic databases (medline), abstract books and references from review and original articles. Article 2: 73 samples of OC were tested for Her-2 and T2A amplification and overexpression, by fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC), respectively. Article 3: 103 samples of Her-2 amplified BC were tested for T2A amplification (by FISH) and overexpression (by IHC), and Ki-67 expression (by IHC). Results. Article 2: Based on cut-offs of ≥1.5 and ≥2 (ratio copies/CEP17), amplification rates for Her-2 were 15/64(23.4%) and 8/64(12.5%) versus 16/64(25%) and 5/64(7.8%) for T2A. We found only 3/72(4.2%) cases of Her-2 overexpression(3+) versus 15/70(21.4%) for T2A (staining in >10% of the cells). There was a modest correlation between T2A amplification and overexpression (p=0.01) and a strong correlation between T2A and Her-2 amplification when these markers were analysed as continuous variables (p<0.001). T2A amplification significantly correlated with advanced FIGO stage (p=0.02). Article 3: T2A gene amplification was observed in 36.9%(38/103) of the Her-2 amplified samples. Her-2 amplification level (i.e. copy number) was not predictive of T2A amplification. The median percentage of T2A positive cells for T2A non-amplified and amplified cases were 5% and 10%, respectively. A weak but still significant correlation was observed between T2A gene amplification level and percentage of positively stained cells (Spearman=0.23, p=0.02), the observed correlation being higher in patients with positive staining for Ki-67. Conclusions. Article 2: The assessment of Her-2 and T2A amplification and overexpression by FISH and IHC, respectively, is feasible in OC samples. There was a good correlation between Her-2 and T2A gene amplification, but the correlation between gene amplification and protein overexpression was poor for both markers. Amplification rates were higher in the absence of correction for the number of copies of the CEP17. Finally, we found a good correlation between T2A amplification and advanced disease stage. Further studies should aim to determine the optimal cut-offs for these markers. Article 3: Contrary to Her-2, T2A gene amplification does not always lead to protein overexpression in BC. Other factors, especially tumour proliferation rate, may interfere with the T2A protein status. Although the majority of the cases of T2A gene aberrations are seen in Her-2 positive tumours, the level of Her-2 amplification does not predict for T2A amplification.

No description available.

Le surenroulement de l’ADN est important pour tous les processus cellulaires qui requièrent la séparation des brins de l’ADN. Il est régulé par l’activité enzymatique des topoisomérases. La gyrase (gyrA et gyrB) utilise l’ATP pour introduire des supertours négatifs dans l’ADN, alors que la topoisomérase I (topA) et la topoisomérase IV (parC et parE) les éliminent. Les cellules déficientes pour la topoisomérase I sont viables si elles ont des mutations compensatoires dans un des gènes codant pour une sous-unité de la gyrase. Ces mutations réduisent le niveau de surenroulement négatif du chromosome et permettent la croissance bactérienne. Une de ces mutations engendre la production d'une gyrase thermosensible. L’activité de surenroulement de la gyrase en absence de la topoisomérase I cause l’accumulation d’ADN hyper-surenroulé négativement à cause de la formation de R-loops. La surproduction de la RNase HI (rnhA), une enzyme qui dégrade l’ARN des R-loops, permet de prévenir l’accumulation d’un excès de surenroulement négatif. En absence de RNase HI, des R-loops sont aussi formés et peuvent être utilisés pour déclencher la réplication de l’ADN indépendamment du système normal oriC/DnaA, un phénomène connu sous le nom de « constitutive stable DNA replication » (cSDR). Pour mieux comprendre le lien entre la formation de R-loops et l’excès de surenroulement négatif, nous avons construit un mutant conditionnel topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) avec l’expression inductible de la RNase HI à partir d’un plasmide. Nous avons trouvé que l’ADN des cellules de ce mutant était excessivement relâché au lieu d'être hypersurenroulé négativement en conditions de pénurie de RNase HI. La relaxation de l’ADN a été montrée comme étant indépendante de l'activité de la topoisomérase IV. Les cellules du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) forment de très longs filaments remplis d’ADN, montrant ainsi un défaut de ségrégation des chromosomes. La surproduction de la topoisomérase III (topB), une enzyme qui peut effectuer la décaténation de l’ADN, a corrigé les problèmes de ségrégation sans toutefois restaurer le niveau de surenroulement de l’ADN. Nous avons constaté que des extraits protéiques du mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) pouvaient inhiber l’activité de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase dans des extraits d’une souche sauvage, suggérant ainsi que la pénurie de RNase HI avait déclenché une réponse cellulaire d’inhibition de cette activité de la gyrase. De plus, des expériences in vivo et in vitro ont montré qu’en absence de RNase HI, l’activité ATP-dépendante de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase était inhibée, alors que l’activité ATP-indépendante de cette enzyme demeurait intacte. Des suppresseurs extragéniques du défaut de croissance du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) qui corrigent également les problèmes de surenroulement et de ségrégation des chromosomes ont pour la plupart été cartographiés dans des gènes impliqués dans la réplication de l’ADN, le métabolisme des R-loops, ou la formation de fimbriae. La deuxième partie de ce projet avait pour but de comprendre les rôles des topoisomérases de type IA (topoisomérase I et topoisomérase III) dans la ségrégation et la stabilité du génome de Escherichia coli. Pour étudier ces rôles, nous avons utilisé des approches de génétique combinées avec la cytométrie en flux, l’analyse de type Western blot et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que le phénotype Par- et les défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes d’un mutant gyrB(Ts) avaient été corrigés en inactivant topA, mais uniquement en présence du gène topB. En outre, nous avons démontré que la surproduction de la topoisomérase III pouvait corriger le phénotype Par- du mutant gyrB(Ts) sans toutefois corriger les défauts de croissance de ce dernier. La surproduction de topoisomérase IV, enzyme responsable de la décaténation des chromosomes chez E. coli, ne pouvait pas remplacer la topoisomérase III. Nos résultats suggèrent que les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle important dans la ségrégation des chromosomes lorsque la gyrase est inefficace. Pour étudier le rôle des topoisomérases de type IA dans la stabilité du génome, la troisième partie du projet, nous avons utilisé des approches génétiques combinées avec des tests de « spot » et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que les cellules déficientes en topoisomérase I avaient des défauts de ségrégation de chromosomes et de croissance liés à un excès de surenroulement négatif, et que ces défauts pouvaient être corrigés en inactivant recQ, recA ou par la surproduction de la topoisomérase III. Le suppresseur extragénique oriC15::aph isolé dans la première partie du projet pouvait également corriger ces problèmes. Les cellules déficientes en topoisomérases de type IA formaient des très longs filaments remplis d’ADN d’apparence diffuse et réparti inégalement dans la cellule. Ces phénotypes pouvaient être partiellement corrigés par la surproduction de la RNase HI ou en inactivant recA, ou encore par des suppresseurs isolés dans la première partie du projet et impliques dans le cSDR (dnaT18::aph et rne59::aph). Donc, dans E. coli, les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle dans la stabilité du génome en inhibant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et de R-loops, et en empêchant les défauts de ségrégation liés à la recombinaison RecA-dépendante, par leur action avec RecQ. Les travaux rapportés ici révèlent que la réplication inappropriée et dérégulée est une source majeure de l’instabilité génomique. Empêcher la réplication inappropriée permet la ségrégation des chromosomes et le maintien d’un génome stable. La RNase HI et les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle majeur dans la prévention de la réplication inappropriée. La RNase HI réalise cette tâche en modulant l’activité de surenroulement ATP-dependante de la gyrase, et en empêchant la réplication à partir des R-loops. Les topoisomérases de type IA assurent le maintien de la stabilité du génome en empêchant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et des R-loops et en agissant avec RecQ pour résoudre des intermédiaires de recombinaison RecA-dépendants afin de permettre la ségrégation des chromosomes. / DNA supercoiling is important for all cellular processes that require strand separation and is regulated by the opposing enzymatic effects of DNA topoisomerases. Gyrase uses ATP to introduce negative supercoils while topoisomerase I (topA) and topoisomerase IV relax negative supercoils. Cells lacking topoisomerase I are only viable if they have compensatory mutations in gyrase genes that reduce the negative supercoiling level of the chromosome to allow bacterial growth. One such mutation leads to the production of a thermosensitive gyrase (gyrB(Ts)). Gyrase driven supercoiling during transcription in the absence of topoisomerase I causes the accumulation of hypernegatively supercoiled plasmid DNAs due to the formation of R-loops. Overproducing RNase HI (rnhA), an enzyme that degrades the RNA moiety of R-loops, prevents the accumulation of hypernegative supercoils. In the absence of RNase HI alone, R-loops are equally formed and can be used to prime DNA replication independently of oriC/DnaA, a phenomenon known as constitutive stable DNA replication (cSDR). To better understand the link between R-loop formation and hypernegative supercoiling, we constructed a conditional topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) mutant with RNase HI being conditionally expressed from a plasmid borne gene. We found that the DNA of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells was extensively relaxed instead of being hypernegatively supercoiled following the depletion of RNase HI. Relaxation was found to be unrelated to the activity of topoisomerase IV. Cells of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) formed long filaments full of DNA, consistent with segregation defect. Overproducing topoisomerase III (topB), an enzyme that can perform decatenation, corrected the segregation problems without restoring supercoiling. We found that extracts of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells inhibited gyrase supercoiling activity of wild type cells extracts in vitro, suggesting that the depletion of RNase HI triggered a cell response that inhibited the supercoiling activity of gyrase. Gyrase supercoiling assays in vivo as well as in crude cell extracts revealed that the ATP dependent supercoiling reaction of gyrase was inhibited while the ATP independent relaxation reaction was unaffected. Genetic suppressors of a triple topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) strain that restored supercoiling and corrected the chromosome segregation defects mostly mapped to genes that affected DNA replication, R-loop metabolism and fimbriae formation. The second part of this project aimed at understanding the roles of type IA DNA topoisomerases (topoisomerase I and topoisomerase III) in chromosome segregation and genome maintenance in E. coli. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in chromosome segregation we employed genetic approaches combined with flow cytometry, Western blot analysis and microscopy (for the examination of cell morphology). We found that the Par- phenotypes (formation of large unsegregated nucleoid in midcell) and chromosome segregation defects of a gyrB(Ts) mutant at the nonpermissive temperature were corrected by deleting topA only in the presence of topB. Moreover, overproducing topoisomerase III was shown to correct the Par- phenotype without correcting the growth defect, but overproducing topoisomerase IV, the major cellular decatenase, failed to correct the defects. Our results suggest that type IA topoisomerases play a role in chromosome segregation when gyrase is inefficient. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in genome maintenance, in the third part of the project, we employed genetic approaches combined with suppressor screens, spot assays and microscopy. We found that cells lacking topoisomerase I suffered from supercoiling-dependent growth defects and chromosome segregation defects that could be corrected by deleting recQ, recA or overproducing topoisomerase III and by an oriC15::aph suppressor mutation isolated in the first part of the project. Cells lacking both type 1A topoisomerases formed very long filaments packed with diffuse and unsegregated DNA. Such phenotypes could be partially corrected by overproducing RNase HI or deleting recA, or by suppressor mutations isolated in the first part of the project, that affected cSDR (dnaT18::aph and rne59::aph). Thus, in E. coli, type IA DNA topoisomerases play a role in genome maintenance by inhibiting inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by preventing RecA-dependent chromosome segregation defect through their action with RecQ. The work reported here reveals that inappropriate and unregulated replication is a major source of genome instability. Preventing such replication will ensures proper chromosome segregation leading to a stable genome. RNase HI and type IA DNA topoisomerases play a leading role in preventing unregulated replication. RNase HI achieves this role by modulating ATP dependent gyrase activity and by preventing replication from R-loops (cSDR). Type IA DNA topoisomerases ensure the maintenance of a stable genome by preventing inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by acting with RecQ to prevent RecA dependent-chromosome segregation defects.

Packaging of genomic DNA by proteins and super coiling into chromatin and chromatin-like structures (in bacteria) influences nearly all nuclear process such as replication, transcription, repair, and recombination. A ubiquitous class of enzymes termed “DNA topoisomerases” pay key roles during these process. The reactions catalyzed by the members of the DNA topoisomerases family share a common chemistry, which involves phosphodiester bond breakage and re-joining, to bring about a change in the linking number of DNA. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms used by these enzymes differ significantly from another. Consequently, DNA topoisomerases are divided into type I and type II enzymes. The mechanism(s) by which DNA topoisomerases perform their functions, and act as targets for anti-bacterial and anti-neoplastic drugs, has attracted considerable interest. Based on these and other finding, I have chosen DNA gyrase from mycobacteria as the subject of my Ph.D. theses investigation. The prokaryotic enzyme, DNA gyrase, is unique amongst all topoisomerases being the only enzyme capable of introducing negative super coils in to duplex DNA. Since no equivalent enzymatic activity has been reported in humans, this essential enzyme has been exploited as a during target against many microbial infections including tuberculosis.DNA gyrase is a tetrameric protein, comprised of two pairs of subunits, encoded by gyrA and gyrB. Inhibitors of DNA gyrase know till date target either of the two subunits and are categorized broadly in to two class, viz. coumarins and quinolones. With the emergence of multiple-drug resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is a leading cause of death world-wide, there is a need to develops new lead molecules with novel mechanisms of inhibition. Towards this end, a new approach to inhibit the mycobacterial DNA gyrase using single-chain antibody has been explore in the present study. In addition to this, the differences in the catalytic properties of the subunits and assembly of the Mycobacterium smegmatis enzyme vis-à-vis Escherichia coli DNA gyrase have been examined. Further, the in vivo relationship of DNA gyrase with the transcription machinery of the cell has also been investigated, with an emphasis on the biology of mycobacteria.

Le surenroulement de l’ADN est important pour tous les processus cellulaires qui requièrent la séparation des brins de l’ADN. Il est régulé par l’activité enzymatique des topoisomérases. La gyrase (gyrA et gyrB) utilise l’ATP pour introduire des supertours négatifs dans l’ADN, alors que la topoisomérase I (topA) et la topoisomérase IV (parC et parE) les éliminent. Les cellules déficientes pour la topoisomérase I sont viables si elles ont des mutations compensatoires dans un des gènes codant pour une sous-unité de la gyrase. Ces mutations réduisent le niveau de surenroulement négatif du chromosome et permettent la croissance bactérienne. Une de ces mutations engendre la production d'une gyrase thermosensible. L’activité de surenroulement de la gyrase en absence de la topoisomérase I cause l’accumulation d’ADN hyper-surenroulé négativement à cause de la formation de R-loops. La surproduction de la RNase HI (rnhA), une enzyme qui dégrade l’ARN des R-loops, permet de prévenir l’accumulation d’un excès de surenroulement négatif. En absence de RNase HI, des R-loops sont aussi formés et peuvent être utilisés pour déclencher la réplication de l’ADN indépendamment du système normal oriC/DnaA, un phénomène connu sous le nom de « constitutive stable DNA replication » (cSDR). Pour mieux comprendre le lien entre la formation de R-loops et l’excès de surenroulement négatif, nous avons construit un mutant conditionnel topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) avec l’expression inductible de la RNase HI à partir d’un plasmide. Nous avons trouvé que l’ADN des cellules de ce mutant était excessivement relâché au lieu d'être hypersurenroulé négativement en conditions de pénurie de RNase HI. La relaxation de l’ADN a été montrée comme étant indépendante de l'activité de la topoisomérase IV. Les cellules du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) forment de très longs filaments remplis d’ADN, montrant ainsi un défaut de ségrégation des chromosomes. La surproduction de la topoisomérase III (topB), une enzyme qui peut effectuer la décaténation de l’ADN, a corrigé les problèmes de ségrégation sans toutefois restaurer le niveau de surenroulement de l’ADN. Nous avons constaté que des extraits protéiques du mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) pouvaient inhiber l’activité de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase dans des extraits d’une souche sauvage, suggérant ainsi que la pénurie de RNase HI avait déclenché une réponse cellulaire d’inhibition de cette activité de la gyrase. De plus, des expériences in vivo et in vitro ont montré qu’en absence de RNase HI, l’activité ATP-dépendante de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase était inhibée, alors que l’activité ATP-indépendante de cette enzyme demeurait intacte. Des suppresseurs extragéniques du défaut de croissance du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) qui corrigent également les problèmes de surenroulement et de ségrégation des chromosomes ont pour la plupart été cartographiés dans des gènes impliqués dans la réplication de l’ADN, le métabolisme des R-loops, ou la formation de fimbriae. La deuxième partie de ce projet avait pour but de comprendre les rôles des topoisomérases de type IA (topoisomérase I et topoisomérase III) dans la ségrégation et la stabilité du génome de Escherichia coli. Pour étudier ces rôles, nous avons utilisé des approches de génétique combinées avec la cytométrie en flux, l’analyse de type Western blot et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que le phénotype Par- et les défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes d’un mutant gyrB(Ts) avaient été corrigés en inactivant topA, mais uniquement en présence du gène topB. En outre, nous avons démontré que la surproduction de la topoisomérase III pouvait corriger le phénotype Par- du mutant gyrB(Ts) sans toutefois corriger les défauts de croissance de ce dernier. La surproduction de topoisomérase IV, enzyme responsable de la décaténation des chromosomes chez E. coli, ne pouvait pas remplacer la topoisomérase III. Nos résultats suggèrent que les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle important dans la ségrégation des chromosomes lorsque la gyrase est inefficace. Pour étudier le rôle des topoisomérases de type IA dans la stabilité du génome, la troisième partie du projet, nous avons utilisé des approches génétiques combinées avec des tests de « spot » et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que les cellules déficientes en topoisomérase I avaient des défauts de ségrégation de chromosomes et de croissance liés à un excès de surenroulement négatif, et que ces défauts pouvaient être corrigés en inactivant recQ, recA ou par la surproduction de la topoisomérase III. Le suppresseur extragénique oriC15::aph isolé dans la première partie du projet pouvait également corriger ces problèmes. Les cellules déficientes en topoisomérases de type IA formaient des très longs filaments remplis d’ADN d’apparence diffuse et réparti inégalement dans la cellule. Ces phénotypes pouvaient être partiellement corrigés par la surproduction de la RNase HI ou en inactivant recA, ou encore par des suppresseurs isolés dans la première partie du projet et impliques dans le cSDR (dnaT18::aph et rne59::aph). Donc, dans E. coli, les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle dans la stabilité du génome en inhibant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et de R-loops, et en empêchant les défauts de ségrégation liés à la recombinaison RecA-dépendante, par leur action avec RecQ. Les travaux rapportés ici révèlent que la réplication inappropriée et dérégulée est une source majeure de l’instabilité génomique. Empêcher la réplication inappropriée permet la ségrégation des chromosomes et le maintien d’un génome stable. La RNase HI et les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle majeur dans la prévention de la réplication inappropriée. La RNase HI réalise cette tâche en modulant l’activité de surenroulement ATP-dependante de la gyrase, et en empêchant la réplication à partir des R-loops. Les topoisomérases de type IA assurent le maintien de la stabilité du génome en empêchant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et des R-loops et en agissant avec RecQ pour résoudre des intermédiaires de recombinaison RecA-dépendants afin de permettre la ségrégation des chromosomes. / DNA supercoiling is important for all cellular processes that require strand separation and is regulated by the opposing enzymatic effects of DNA topoisomerases. Gyrase uses ATP to introduce negative supercoils while topoisomerase I (topA) and topoisomerase IV relax negative supercoils. Cells lacking topoisomerase I are only viable if they have compensatory mutations in gyrase genes that reduce the negative supercoiling level of the chromosome to allow bacterial growth. One such mutation leads to the production of a thermosensitive gyrase (gyrB(Ts)). Gyrase driven supercoiling during transcription in the absence of topoisomerase I causes the accumulation of hypernegatively supercoiled plasmid DNAs due to the formation of R-loops. Overproducing RNase HI (rnhA), an enzyme that degrades the RNA moiety of R-loops, prevents the accumulation of hypernegative supercoils. In the absence of RNase HI alone, R-loops are equally formed and can be used to prime DNA replication independently of oriC/DnaA, a phenomenon known as constitutive stable DNA replication (cSDR). To better understand the link between R-loop formation and hypernegative supercoiling, we constructed a conditional topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) mutant with RNase HI being conditionally expressed from a plasmid borne gene. We found that the DNA of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells was extensively relaxed instead of being hypernegatively supercoiled following the depletion of RNase HI. Relaxation was found to be unrelated to the activity of topoisomerase IV. Cells of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) formed long filaments full of DNA, consistent with segregation defect. Overproducing topoisomerase III (topB), an enzyme that can perform decatenation, corrected the segregation problems without restoring supercoiling. We found that extracts of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells inhibited gyrase supercoiling activity of wild type cells extracts in vitro, suggesting that the depletion of RNase HI triggered a cell response that inhibited the supercoiling activity of gyrase. Gyrase supercoiling assays in vivo as well as in crude cell extracts revealed that the ATP dependent supercoiling reaction of gyrase was inhibited while the ATP independent relaxation reaction was unaffected. Genetic suppressors of a triple topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) strain that restored supercoiling and corrected the chromosome segregation defects mostly mapped to genes that affected DNA replication, R-loop metabolism and fimbriae formation. The second part of this project aimed at understanding the roles of type IA DNA topoisomerases (topoisomerase I and topoisomerase III) in chromosome segregation and genome maintenance in E. coli. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in chromosome segregation we employed genetic approaches combined with flow cytometry, Western blot analysis and microscopy (for the examination of cell morphology). We found that the Par- phenotypes (formation of large unsegregated nucleoid in midcell) and chromosome segregation defects of a gyrB(Ts) mutant at the nonpermissive temperature were corrected by deleting topA only in the presence of topB. Moreover, overproducing topoisomerase III was shown to correct the Par- phenotype without correcting the growth defect, but overproducing topoisomerase IV, the major cellular decatenase, failed to correct the defects. Our results suggest that type IA topoisomerases play a role in chromosome segregation when gyrase is inefficient. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in genome maintenance, in the third part of the project, we employed genetic approaches combined with suppressor screens, spot assays and microscopy. We found that cells lacking topoisomerase I suffered from supercoiling-dependent growth defects and chromosome segregation defects that could be corrected by deleting recQ, recA or overproducing topoisomerase III and by an oriC15::aph suppressor mutation isolated in the first part of the project. Cells lacking both type 1A topoisomerases formed very long filaments packed with diffuse and unsegregated DNA. Such phenotypes could be partially corrected by overproducing RNase HI or deleting recA, or by suppressor mutations isolated in the first part of the project, that affected cSDR (dnaT18::aph and rne59::aph). Thus, in E. coli, type IA DNA topoisomerases play a role in genome maintenance by inhibiting inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by preventing RecA-dependent chromosome segregation defect through their action with RecQ. The work reported here reveals that inappropriate and unregulated replication is a major source of genome instability. Preventing such replication will ensures proper chromosome segregation leading to a stable genome. RNase HI and type IA DNA topoisomerases play a leading role in preventing unregulated replication. RNase HI achieves this role by modulating ATP dependent gyrase activity and by preventing replication from R-loops (cSDR). Type IA DNA topoisomerases ensure the maintenance of a stable genome by preventing inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by acting with RecQ to prevent RecA dependent-chromosome segregation defects.

No description available.

Les topoisomérases (topos) de type IA jouent un rôle primordial dans le maintien et l’organisation du génome. Cependant, les mécanismes par lesquels elles contrôlent cette stabilité génomique sont encore à approfondir. Chez E. coli, les deux principales topoisomérases de type IA sont la topo I (codée par le gène topA) et la topo III (codée par le gène topB). Il a déjà été montré que les cellules dépourvues des topos I et III formaient de très longs filaments dans lesquels les chromosomes ne sont pas bien séparés. Comme ces défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes sont corrigés par l’inactivation de la protéine RecA qui est responsable de la recombinaison homologue, il a été émis comme hypothèse que les topoisomérases de type IA avaient un rôle dans la résolution des intermédiaires de recombinaison afin de permettre la séparation des chromosomes. D’autre part, des études réalisées dans notre laboratoire démontrent que le rôle majeur de la topoisomérase I est d’empêcher la formation des R-loops durant la transcription, surtout au niveau des opérons rrn. Ces R-loops on été récemment identifiés comme des obstacles majeurs à l’avancement des fourches de réplication, ce qui peut provoquer une instabilité génomique. Nous avons des évidences génétiques montrant qu’il en serait de même chez nos mutants topA. Tout récemment, des études ont montré le rôle majeur de certaines hélicases dans le soutien aux fourches de réplication bloquées, mais aussi une aide afin de supprimer les R-loops. Chez E. coli, ces hélicases ont été identifiées et sont DinG, Rep et UvrD. Ces hélicases jouent un rôle dans la suppression de certains obstacles à la réplication. Le but de ce projet était de vérifier l’implication de ces hélicases chez le mutant topA en utilisant une approche génétique. Étonnamment, nos résultats montrent que la délétion de certains de ces gènes d’hélicases a pour effet de corriger plutôt que d’exacerber des phénotypes du mutants topA qui sont liés à la croissance et à la morphologie des nucléoides et des cellules. Ces résultats sont interprétés à la lumière de nouvelles fonctions attribuées aux topoisomérases de types IA dans la stabilité du génome. / Type 1A topoisomerases (topos) play a vital role in the maintenance and organization of the genome. However, the mechanisms by which they control genome stability still remain to be explored. In E. coli, the two type IA topoisomerases are topo I (encoded by topA) and topo III (encoded by topB). It has been shown that cells lacking topo I and III form very long filaments in which the chromosomes are not well separated. As the chromosome segregation defects are corrected by inactivation of the RecA protein, that is responsible for homologous recombination, it has been hypothesized that type IA topoisomerases have a role in the resolution of recombination intermediates to allow chromosome segregation. On the other hand, studies in our laboratory have shown that the major role of topoisomerase I is to prevent the formation of R-loops during transcription, especially at the rrn operons. These R-loops have been recently identified as major roadblocks to the progression of replication forks, which can cause genomic instability. We have genetic evidence suggesting similar effects may occur in our topA mutants. More recently, studies have shown the important role of certain helicases in eliminating roadblocks for replication forks that could sometimes be R-loops. In E. coli, these helicases have been identified and they are DinG, Rep and UvrD. The purpose of this project was to study the roles of these helicases in our topA mutant, using a genetic approach. Surprisingly, our results show that deletions of some of these genes have the effect of correcting rather than exacerbating topA mutant phenotypes that are related to the growth and cell and nucleoid morphology. These results are interpreted in the light of new functions assigned to the type IA topoisomerases in genome stability.

A steady state level of negative supercoiling is essential for chromosome condensation, initiation of replication and subsequent elongation step. DNA gyrase, found in every eubacteria, serves the essential housekeeping function of maintenance of the negative supercoiling status of the genome. The functional holoenzyme is a heterotetramer, comprising of two GyrA and two GyrB subunits. DNA gyrase is an indispensable enzyme and serves as a readily susceptible target for natural antibacterial agents. The enzymatic steps of topoisomerisation by gyrase involve transient double strand break and rejoining of the strands after intact duplex transfer. Corruption of its catalytic cycle can lead to the generation of cytotoxic double-strand DNA breaks. Most of the anti-gyrase agents achieve their objective by targeting the vulnerable step of the reaction cycle i.e. DNA cleavage step. Bacteria on their part must have evolved and adopted strategies to counter the action of external agents and prevent the generation of double strand breaks thereby safeguarding their genome. In the present thesis, attempts have been made to understand the role of three endogenous gyrase interacting proteins in gyrase modulation and cellular defense against anti-gyrase agents. The thesis is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the wonder enzymes “DNA topoisomerases” starting with a brief classification of these enzymes and their physiological functions. In the next section, DNA gyrase has been discussed in greater detail. The structural aspects as well as the mechanism of the topoisomerisation reaction catalyzed by gyrase have been discussed. Final section gives an overview of different gyrase modulators known till date focusing on their source, structure and mode of action. The scope and objectives of the present study is presented at the end of this chapter. In Chapter 2 is aimed at understanding the physiological role of GyrI. GyrI, originally identified in Escherichia coli as an inhibitor of DNA gyrase, has been previously shown in the laboratory to render protection against gyrase poisons and also various other DNA damaging agents (mitomycin C, MNNG). Abolishing GyrI expression renders the cell hypersensitive to these cytotoxic agents. Interestingly, GyrI exhibits contrasting behavior towards two plasmid encoded proteinaceous poisons of DNA gyrase. It reduces microcin B17-mediated double-strand breaks in vivo, imparting protection to the cells against the toxin. However, a positive cooperation between GyrI and F plasmid encoded toxin CcdB, results in enhanced DNA damage and cell death. These results suggest a more complex functional interplay and physiological role for GyrI. Search for other chromosomally encoded gyrase inhibitors led to YacG, a small zinc finger protein (7.3kDa) from E. coli, shown to be a member of DNA gyrase interactome, in a protein-protein interaction network described recently. Chapter 3 deals with the detailed characterization of YacG. It is shown that YacG inhibits DNA gyrase by binding to GyrB subunit and preventing DNA binding activity of the enzyme. More importantly, it protects against the cytotoxic effects of other gyrase inhibitors like ciprofloxacin, novobiocin, microcin B17 and CcdB. Further investigations revealed that YacG and its homologues are found only in proteobacteria. Hence, it appears to be a defense strategy developed by gram-negative bacteria to fight against the gyrase targeting cytotoxic agents. Inhibition by YacG appears to be specific to E. coli gyrase as mycobacterial enzyme is refractile to YacG action. GyrB, only in gram-negative organisms, possesses extra stretch of 165 amino acids, indispensable for DNA binding. Biochemical experiments with the truncated GyrB lacking the extra stretch reveal the importance of this stretch for stable YacG-GyrB interaction. E. coli topoisomerase IV is also resistant to YacG mediated inhibition, probably due to the absence of the extra stretch in ParE subunit, which is otherwise highly similar to GyrB. Further, YacG homologues from other proteobacterial members (Sinorhizobium meliloti and Haemophilus influenzae homologues sharing 35% and 63 % identity with E. coli YacG respectively ) also inhibits E. coli DNA gyrase at comparable levels. YacG thus emerges as a proteobacteria specific inhibitor of DNA gyrase. The occurrence of both YacG and the gyrase extra stretch only in proteobacteria, suggest co-evolution of interacting partners in proteobacteria. In Chapter 4, the study of endogenous gyrase modulators is extended to Mycobacterium sp. glutamate racemase (MurI) from E. coli has been shown earlier to be an inhibitor of DNA gyrase. However, nothing much was known about its mode of action. MurI is an important enzyme in the cell wall biosynthesis pathway, which catalyses the conversion of L-glutamate to D-glutamate, an integral component of the bacterial cell wall. In this chapter, it is demonstrated that M. tuberculosis MurI inhibits DNA gyrase activity, in addition to its precursor independent racemization function. The inhibition is not species specific as E. coli gyrase is also inhibited. However, it is gyrase specific as topoisomerase I activity remains unaltered. The mechanism of inhibition by MurI has been elucidated for the first time and it is shown that MurI binds to GyrA subunit of the enzyme leading to a decrease in DNA binding of the holoenzyme. The sequestration of the gyrase by MurI results in inhibition of all reactions catalyzed by DNA gyrase. Chapter 5 is the extension of the studies on glutamate racemase into another species, i.e. Mycobacterium smegmatis. DNA gyrase inhibition seems to be an additional attribute of some of the glutamate racemases, but not all, as Glr isozyme from B. subtilis has no effect on gyrase activity in spite of sharing a high degree of similarity with the gyrase inhibitory glutamate racemases. It is shown that like the M. tuberculosis MurI, M. smegmatis enzyme is also a bifunctional enzyme. It inhibits DNA gyrase in addition to its racemization activity. Further, overexpression of the enzyme in M. smegmatis provides protection to the organism against fluoroquinolones. DNA gyrase inhibitory property thus appears to be a typical characteristic of these MurI and seems to have evolved to either modulate the function of the essential housekeeping enzyme or to provide protection to gyrase against gyrase inhibitors, which cause double strand breaks in the genome. In the above chapters, it is shown that besides its crucial role in cell wall biosynthesis, mycobacterial MurI moon lights as DNA gyrase inhibitor. That the two activities exhibited by M. tuberculosis MurI are unlinked and independent of each other is demonstrated in Chapter 6. Racemization function of MurI is not essential for its gyrase inhibitory property as mutants compromised in racemization activity retain gyrase inhibition property. MurI- DNA gyrase interaction influences gyrase activity but has no effect on racemization activity of MurI. MurI expression in mycobacterial cells provides protection against the action of ciprofloxacin, thereby suggesting a role of MurI in countering external agents targeting DNA gyrase. Further M. tuberculosis MurI overexpressed in near homologous expression system of M. smegmatis yields highly soluble enzyme which can be further used for structural and functional studies. In conclusion, the studies reveal that the endogenous inhibitors essentially influence the enzyme activity by sequestering the enzyme away from DNA. None of them cause cytotoxicity, which usually arises as a result of DNA damage caused by accumulation of gyrase-DNA covalent intermediate. On the contrary they provide protection against such gyrase poisons. Comparative analysis of these proteinaceous inhibitors, however, does not reveal a common motif or structural fold, required for their ability to inhibit DNA gyrase. Based on these studies, it can be proposed that these endogenous proteins exist to serve as cellular defense strategies against external abuse and also to modulate the intracellular activity of DNA gyrase as and when required, for accurate division, functioning and survival of the cells.

Biomolecular interactions, including protein-protein, protein-DNA, and protein-ligand interactions, are of special importance in all biological systems. These interactions may occer during the loading of biomolecules to interfaces, the translocation of biomolecules through transmembrane protein pores, and the movement of biomolecules in a crowded intracellular environment. The molecular interaction of a protein with its binding partners is crucial in fundamental biological processes such as electron transfer, intracellular signal transmission and regulation, neuroprotective mechanisms, and regulation of DNA topology. In this dissertation, a customized surface plasmon resonance (SPR) has been optimized and new theoretical and label free experimental methods with related analytical calculations have been developed for the analysis of biomolecular interactions. Human neuroglobin (hNgb) and cytochrome c from equine heart (Cyt c) proteins have been used to optimize the customized SPR instrument. The obtained Kd value (~13 µM), from SPR results, for Cyt c-hNgb molecular interactions is in general agreement with a previously published result. The SPR results also confirmed no significant impact of the internal disulfide bridge between Cys 46 and Cys 55 on hNgb binding to Cyt c. Using SPR, E. coli topoisomerase I enzyme turnover during plasmid DNA relaxation was found to be enhanced in the presence of Mg2+. In addition, a new theoretical approach of analyzing biphasic SPR data has been introduced based on analytical solutions of the biphasic rate equations. In order to develop a new label free method to quantitatively study protein-protein interactions, quartz nanopipettes were chemically modified. The derived Kd (~20 µM) value for the Cyt c-hNgb complex formations matched very well with SPR measurements (Kd ~16 µM). The finite element numerical simulation results were similar to the nanopipette experimental results. These results demonstrate that nanopipettes can potentially be used as a new class of a label-free analytical method to quantitatively characterize protein-protein interactions in attoliter sensing volumes, based on a charge sensing mechanism. Moreover, the molecule-based selective nature of hydrophobic and nanometer sized carbon nanotube (CNT) pores was observed. This result might be helpful to understand the selective nature of cellular transport through transmembrane protein pores.