Thesis (M.S.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1990. / Vita. Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 94-96). Also available via the Internet.

Thesis (M.S.)--Worcester Polytechnic Institute. / Keywords: chloramines; trihalomethanes; disinfection by-products. Includes bibliographical references (p. 73-78).

Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2010. / Printout. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 37-39). Also available on the World Wide Web.

Disinfectants such as chlorine are used in drinking water treatment to protect the public health from pathogenic microorganisms. However, disinfectants also react with humic material present in raw water sources and produce by-products, such as trihalomethanes. Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) include four compounds: chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform. TTHMs are carcinogenic and have been found to cause adverse pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) has set the maximum contaminant limit for TTHMs at 80 ìg/L. Additional regulations require reliable drinking water disinfection for resistant pathogens and treatment plants must simultaneously control TTHMs and achieve proper disinfection. Research has shown that THM formation depends on several factors. THM concentrations increase with increasing residence time, increased temperature and increased pH. The disinfectant type and concentration is also significant: THM concentrations can be minimized by using lower disinfectant doses or alternative disinfectants to chlorine such as chloramines. Chloramines are formed by the addition of both chlorine and ammonia. The Worcester Water Filtration Plant in Holden, MA currently uses both ozone and chlorine for primary disinfection. Chlorine is also used for secondary disinfection. This study analyzed the effect of using chloramines versus free chlorine on TTHM production at the plant. Water samples were collected from the plant, dosed with chlorine/chloramines and stored for their designated residence times. The residual chlorine was then quenched with sodium thiosulfate and the samples were analyzed for TTHM concentration using a GC-MS. Experiments were conducted in December of 2001, April of 2002 and February of 2003, and examined varying residence times, pH conditions, temperatures, chlorine to nitrogen ratios and free chlorine reaction periods. The study found that as the pH increased the TTHMs increased. For the free chlorine samples, as residence time increased, the TTHMs increased. For the chloramination samples it was found that most of the TTHMs were formed in the first six hour reaction period with free chlorine before ammonia was added. Therefore, reducing this free chlorine contact period to 0 or 3 hours would reduce THM formation further. Chlorine to nitrogen ratios between 3:1 and 7:1 were all effective at reducing THM concentrations. Using chloramination at a 3:1 ratio (with a 6 hour free chlorine time) reduced THM formation by approximately 38% for a 54 hour residence time compared to using free chlorine.

Disinfectants, such as chlorine, are widely used in water treatment plants to ensure the safety and quality of drinking water. However, these disinfectants easily react with some natural or man-made organic compounds in raw water and then form disinfection by-products (DBPs). For example, halogenated acetic acid (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) are two main components of DBPs. The purposes of this study are to analyze the concentration of DBPs including HAAs and THMs in drinking water and investigate the distribution of DBPs in the processes of three advanced water treatment plants in southern Taiwan. The analytical method of HAAs is based on the USEPA Method 552.3 and THMs is analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextraction(HS-SPME). Moreover, some factors which may influence the formation of DBPs such as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and water temperature are also analyzed to further discuss the relation to the generation of DBPs. Through this study, the results could be the reference for operation control in water treatment plants and regulation setting in Taiwan. The samples of drinking water were collected in three advanced water treatment plants in southern Taiwan from June 2007 to April 2008. The analyzed HAA9 results were 28.71 ¡Ó 14.77£g g / L in Plant A, 24.43 ¡Ó 15.70 £g g / L in Plant B, 28.91 ¡Ó 14.38 £g g / L in Plant C. Comparing the HAA5 results with the maximum contaminant level (MCL) in USEPA, it was clearly found that all the values were under the standard of 60 £g g / L. As to THMs, the results were 9.99 ¡Ó 3.39£g g / L in Plant A, 0.94 ¡Ó 2.12 £g g / L in Plant B, 28.91 ¡Ó 14.38 £g g / L in Plant C and greatly under the EPA standard of 80 £g g / L in Taiwan. Furthermore, the major species of HAA9 in order were BCAA and TCAA while THMs was trichloromethane (CHCl3). In the relation between DOC and DBPs, the results demonstrated that DOC was more relative to DBPs in raw water; meanwhile, the water temperature did not show great relation. In general, despite the poor correlation, it was still could conclude that the concentration of DBPs increases with the increase of DOC and temperature. In conclusion, the research results showed that the removal efficiency of DBPs in Plant A and B (UF/RO system) is greater than Plant C (Biological Activated Carbon system, BAC system ), and all three advanced water treatment plants could show greatly effectiveness in drinking water quality improvement. However, higher concentration of bromine products in HAAs was discovered in this research. It was suggested that the phenomenon should be further discussed and controlled.

Thesis (DTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016. / Trihalomethanes are disinfection byproducts of chlorinated waters, and there is a growing interest to understand plant responses to organohalogens. This study investigates the effects of increasing trihalomethane dose on the physiology of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and determines whether the extent of physiological impacts of trihalomethane exposure on seedling radicle length, biomass accumulation, concentration levels of 12 key nutrients, oxidative stress, fatty acids and α-tocopherol content in membrane lipids of tomato correlated with either the number of bromine or chlorine atoms in the trihalomethane molecules. The 2 x 4 x 5 factorial experiment was laid out in CRD with four replications. Two cultivars of tomato were exposed to 4 levels of trihalomethanes (bromodichloromethane, bromoform, chloroform and dibromochloromethane) and 5 levels of concentration (0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 mg.L-1) in a green house. The decrease in seedling biomass and the inhibition of radicle growth increased with increasing trihalomethane concentrations in a dose dependent manner. Also, both these parameters decreased in response to an increase in the number of bromine atoms in the trihalomethane molecule. However, in growing plants the decrease in concentration levels of seven essential nutrients namely nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) & boron (B) correlated to an increase in the number of chlorine atoms. Increase in trihalomethane dose also induced a decrease in all the above mentioned nutrients with the addition of manganese (Mn), although the decrease in P and S were not significant at P ≤ 0.05. The increase in trihalomethane dose induced an increase in oxidative stress parameters such as the total phenolic content, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX) and lipid peroxidation. The increase in the above parameters correlated to an increase in the number of chlorine atoms, however, no such correlations were observed in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, general lipid peroxidation, α-tocopherol content and totalsoluble proteins. In plant membrane lipids, increase in the saturated fat hexadecanoic acid was observed in both tomato cultivars that correlated to the degree of chlorination in the trihalomethane molecule. The increase in α-linolenic acid stress signaling correlated with an increase in the degree of chlorination in only one tomato cultivar suggesting variable tolerance between cultivars to chemical action. Membrane lipids adjustments in tomato plants exposed to increasing trihalomethane dose were based on two factors; first the adjustments of membrane fluidity with the increase in plant sterols and fatty acids content and secondly, the increase in lipophyllic antioxidants such as phenols, quinones and α-tocopherol content. The phenolic lipophyllic antioxidant was tentatively identified to be 2,2’-methylenebis [6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl] phenol. In conclusion, the magnitude of plant responses to trihalomethanes is more dependent on the halogenation number of the molecule and less on its concentration.

Trihalomethanes such as chloroform, dichlorobromomethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform are formed when natural water is chlorinated in water treatment. This investigation explores the use of ozone to remove organic precursors from natural water, thus decreasing trihalomethane formation potential. The data suggest a mechanism involving formation of secondary precursors after prolonged contact with ozone, suggesting that trihalomethane precursors may be minimized by using low doses of ozone and short contact time.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on March 6, 2008) Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D. - Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics)--University of Arizona, 1985. / Bibliography: leaves 216-224.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- Australian National University, The National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, 2001. / Bibliography: leaves 263-270.