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Yes / KSHV is the causative agent of commonly fatal malignancies of immuno-compromised individuals, including primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). A hallmark of all herpesviruses is their biphasic lifecycle – viral latency and the productive lytic cycle, and it is well established that reactivation of the KSHV lytic cycle is associated with KS pathogenesis. Therefore, a thorough appreciation of the mechanisms that govern reactivation is required to better understand disease progression. The viral protein, replication and transcription activator (RTA), is the KSHV lytic switch protein due to its ability to drive the expression of various lytic genes, leading to reactivation of the entire lytic cycle. While the mechanisms for activating lytic gene expression have received much attention, how RTA impacts on cellular function is less well understood. To address this, we developed a cell line with doxycycline-inducible RTA expression and applied SILAC-based quantitative proteomics. Using this methodology, we have identified a novel cellular protein (AT-rich interacting domain containing 3B, ARID3B) whose expression was enhanced by RTA and that relocalised to replication compartments upon lytic reactivation. We also show that siRNA knockdown or overexpression of ARID3B led to an enhancement or inhibition of lytic reactivation, respectively. Furthermore, DNA affinity and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that ARID3B specifically interacts with A/T-rich elements in the KSHV origin of lytic replication (oriLyt), and this was dependent on lytic cycle reactivation. Therefore, we have identified a novel cellular protein whose expression is enhanced by KSHV RTA with the ability to inhibit KSHV reactivation.

Le criblage par siRNA de 49 protéines de l'hôte qui sont incorporées dans les particules matures du virus herpès simplex de type 1 (VHS-1) a révélé l'importance d'au moins 15 d’entre elle pour infectivité du virus (Stegen, C et al. 2013). Parmi celle-ci figure la protéine humaine DDX3X, qui est une ARN hélicase ATP-dépendante. Cette protéine multifonctionnelle participe à différents stages de l'expression génique, tels que la transcription, la maturation et le transport d'ARNm ainsi que la traduction. DDX3X est impliquée dans la réplication de plusieurs virus tels que le Virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1), l'hépatite B (VHB), le virus de la vaccine (VACV) et le virus de l'hépatite C (VHC). Le rôle exact de DDX3X dans le cycle de réplication du VHS-1 est toutefois inconnu. Ce mémoire consiste en l’étude détaillée de l'interaction de DDX3X avec le virus. De manière surprenante, tant l’inhibition que la surexpression de DDX3X réduit de manière significative l'infectivité du VHS-1. Fait intéressant, lorsque nous avons restauré la déplétion de DDX3X par une construction résistante aux ARNi utilisés, le virus pouvait de nouveau infecter les cellules efficacement, indiquant que le virus est sensible aux quantités de cette protéine de son hôte. Nos résultats indiquent de plus que le virus modifie la localisation de DDX3X et cause son agrégation tôt dès les premiers temps de l'infection. Cependant, le virus ne modifie pas les niveaux cellulaires de DDX3X dans deux des trois lignées cellulaires examinées. Nous avons également pu établir que cette protéine n'a pas d'effet sur l'entrée du VHS-1, suggérant qu’elle agit à un stade ultérieure de l’infection. En examinant cette relation plus en détail, nos résultats ont démontré que l’inhibition ou la surexpression de DDX3X inhibent toutes deux la production de nouvelles particules virales en réduisant l'expression des diverses classes cinétiques des protéines virales et ce au niveau de leur transcription. Malgré le rôle connu DDX3X dans la stimulation de la réponse immunitaire innée et la production d’interférons de type I, l’impact de DDX3X sur la réplication du VHS-1 est ici indépendante de cette fonction. Ces travaux démontrent donc une nouvelle voie d’action de DDX3X sur les virus en agissant directement sur la transcription de gènes viraux et la réplication du génome d’un virus à ADN. En comprenant mieux cette interactions hôtepathogène, il est maintenant envisageable de concevoir des nouvelles approches thérapeutiques contre ce virus. / siRNA screening of 49 host proteins that are known to be incorporated in the mature virions of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) revealed the importance of at least 15 cellular proteins for viral infectivity (Stegen, C et al. 2013). Among these, was the human protein DDX3X, a DEAD-box ATP-dependent RNA helicase. This multifunctional protein participates in different stages of gene expression such as mRNA transcription, maturation, mRNA export and translation. DDX3X has been shown to be involved in the replication of several viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccinia virus (VACV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). The exact role of DDX3X in HSV-1 replication cycle is not known. Here we sought to find the detailed interaction between DDX3X with HSV-1. Surprisingly, the down-regulation as well as overexpression of DDX3X, significantly reduced the infectivity of HSV-1, indicating that the virus is sensitive to the precise levels of DDX3X. Accordingly, when we rescued DDX3X back to its normal cellular levels by sequential transfection of DDX3X siRNA and siRNA resistant DDX3X plasmid, the virus was able to infect cells efficiently compare to wild-type conditions. Furthermore, the virus changes the localization of DDX3X and causes its aggregation at early times in the infection. However, the virus does not change the cellular levels of DDX3X in at least two of three different cell lines tested. Using a luciferase assay we were able to establish that this protein has no effect on the entry of HSV-1. In fact, depleting or overexpressing DDX3X impaired the production on newly assembled viral particles by blocking the expression of all classes of viral proteins at the transcription level. Despite the known role of DDX3X in the stimulation of innate immune response and interferon type I production, DDX3X appears to act on HSV-1 replication independently of this pathway. This highlights a novel route of action of DDX3X by acting at the transcription level and the consequent genome replication of a DNA virus. By better understanding such pathogen interactions, it might now be possible to design novel therapeutic approaches.

The repertoire of cellular functions mediated by Ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules have expanded considerably during the last two decades. The role played by RNA in controlling and regulating gene expression in viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes has been a matter of continuous investigations. This interest has arisen primarily due to the discoveries of cisacting RNA structures like riboswitches, ribosensors and frameshift elements, which are found in either the 5’-, 3’-untranslated regions of mRNA or in the open reading frames. These structures control gene expression at the level of translation by either sequestering the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence to regulate translation initiation or modulating ribosomal positions during an active translation process. Very often, these structures comprise of an RNA pseudoknot and it has been observed that these pseudoknots exist in a dynamic equilibrium with other intermediate structures. This equilibrium could be shifted by several factors including presence of ions, metabolites, temperature and external force. RNA pseudoknots represent the most versatile and ubiquitous class of RNA structures in the cell, whose unique folding topology could be exploited in a number of ways by the cellular machinery. In this thesis, a thorough study of programmed -1 ribosomal frameshifting (-1 PRF) process, which is a well known gene regulation event employed by many RNA viruses, was carried out. -1 PRF is a translation recoding process, necessary for viruses to main-tain a stoichiometric ratio of structural: enzymatic proteins. This ratio varies among different viral species. At the heart of this process, lies an RNA pseudoknot accompanied by a seven nucleotide long sequence motif, which pauses an actively translating ribosome on mRNA and causes it to shift its reading frame. The frameshift inducing efficiency of pseudoknot depends on multiple factors, for example the time scale of ribosomal pause and RNA unfolding, subsequent refolding of structure to native/intermediate states and/or environment conditions. With the aim of illustrating the fundamentals of the process, multiple factors involved in -1 PRF were studied. Chapters 2-4 represent distinct aspects of -1 PRF process, while Chapter 5 discusses a different work concerned with nucleocytoplasmic transport of tRNA carried out by nuclear export receptor Exporting. Chapter 1 gives an overview of the different regulatory activities with which RNA structures and sequences are found to be associated and the evolution of these stud-ies. It discusses the different types of structural motifs found to constitute tertiary RNA structure and secondary structure prediction and determination techniques. A brief description of ab initio RNA structure modeling and other relevant tools and methodologies used in this work has been presented. Details of techniques used in each study have been provided in relevant chapters. Chapter 2 describes how local factors like ionic conditions, hydration patterns, presence of protonated residues and single residue mutations affect the structural dynamics of an RNA pseudoknot involved in -1 PRF from a plant luteovirus. Single residue mutations in the loop regions or certain base-pair inversions in the stem regions of pseudoknot increase the frameshift inducing ability of the pseudoknot structure, while some others decrease this efficiency. However, it was not clear how the changes made to the wild-type (WT) RNA pseudoknot from Beet Western Yellow Mosaic virus were affecting the global structure in terms of its dynamics and other parameters. To study this, multiple all-atom molecular dynamics simulations (MD) were performed on WT and mutant structures created in silico. The effect of presence and absence of magnesium ions on the structural geometry was also studied. The analysis was done to identify the increase/decrease in the number of hydrogen bonds formed by Watson-Crick base-pairs in stem region or non Watson-Crick pairs between stem and loop. Ionic and water densities were analyzed and the role of potential ribosome-pseudoknot interaction was elaborated. With the aim of mimicking ribosome induced unfolding of an RNA pseudoknot, steered molecular dynamics pulling experiments were performed. This work was done primarily to understand the unfolding pathway of Hairpin(H)-type pseudoknots in general and the intermediate structures formed. Chapter 3 describes the thermodynamics and mechanics associated with the mechanical pulling of -1 PRF inducing RNA pseudoknot and its mutants described in previous chapter. Analysis of the trajectories reveal relative unfolding patterns in terms of disruption of various hydrogen bonds. This study allowed us to pinpoint the kind of intermediate structures being formed during pulling and whether these intermediate structures correspond to any known secondary structures, such as simple stem-loops. This information could be used for gaining insights into the folding pathways of these structures. An RNA pseudoknot stimulates -1 PRF in conjunction with a heptanucleotide “slippery site” and an intervening spacer sequence. A comprehensive study of analyzing the sequence signatures and composition of all overlapping gene segments harboring these frameshift elements from four different RNA virus families was carried out. Chapter 4 describes the sequence composition of all overlapping gene segments in Astroviridae, Coronaviridae, Retroviridae and Luteoviridae viral families which are known to employ -1 PRF process for maintaining their protein products. Sequence analysis revealed preference for GC bases in the structure forming sequence regions. A comparative study between multiple sequence alignment and secondary structure prediction revealed that while pseudoknots have a clear preference for specific base-pairs in their stem regions, viral families that employ a hairpin loop as -1 PRF structure, doesn’t show this preference. Information derived from secondary structure prediction was then used for RNA ab initio modeling to generate tertiary structures. Furthermore, the structural parameters were calculated for the helices of the frameshift inducing pseudoknots and were compared with the values calculated for a set of non -1 PRF inducing H-type pseudo-knots. This study highlighted the differences between -1 PRF pseudoknots and other H-type pseudoknot structures as well as specific sequence and structural preferences of the former. Chapter 5 discusses the dynamics of a tRNA transport factor Exportint (Xpot), which transports mature tRNA molecules from nucleus to cytoplasm and belongs to Importitβ family of proteins. The global conformational dynamics of other transport receptors has been reported earlier, using coarse-grained modeling and Elastic Network Models (ENMs), but a detailed description of the dynamics at an all-atomic resolution was lacking. This transport requires association of Xpot with RanGTP, a G-protein, in the nucleus and hydrolysis of RanGTP in the cytoplasm. The chain of events leading to tRNA release from Xpot after RanGTP hydrolysis was not studied previously. With these objectives, several molecular complexes containing Xpot bound to Ran or tRNA or both in the GTP and GDP ligand states as well as free Xpot structures in nuclear and cytosolic forms were studied. A combination of conventional and accelerated molecular dynamics simulations was used to study these molecular complexes. The study highlighted various aspects associated with tRNA release and conformational change which occurs in Xpot in cytosolic form. The nuclear to cytosolic state transition in Xpot could be attributed to large fluctuations in C-terminal region and dynamic hinge-points located between specific HEAT repeats. A secondary role of Xpot in controlling the quality of tRNA transport has been proposed based on multiple sequence and structure alignment with Importin-β protein. The loss of critical contacts like hydrogen bonds and salt bridges between Xpot/Ran and Xpot/tRNA interface was evaluated in order to study the initial effects of RanGTP hydrolysis and how it influences receptor-cargo binding. This study revealed various aspects of tRNA transport process by Xpot, not understood previously. The results presented in this thesis illustrate the role of RNA sequence elements and pseudoknots present in RNA viruses in modulating -1 PRF process and how multiple environmental factors affect -1 PRF inducing ability of the structure. From the studies of Xpot and its complexes, the effects of GTP hydrolysis leading to tRNA dissociation have been presented and the progression of conformational transition in Xpot after tRNA dissociation has been highlighted. Chapter 6 summarizes major conclusions of this thesis work. The refolding of single stranded RNA chains, subjected to a previous unfolding simulation is studied. Appendix A describes this work and initial results. Appendix B describes the effect of improved molecular dynamics force fields, containing corrections for χ torsion angle for RNA, on the conformation of tertiary RNA structures. Part of the work presented in this thesis has been reported in the following publications. 1.Asmita Gupta and Manju Bansal. Local Structural and Environmental Factors De-fine the Efficiency of an RNA Pseudoknot Involved in Programmed Ribosomal Frameshift Process. J. Phys. Chem. B. 118 (41), pp 11905-11920. 2014 2.Asmita Gupta, Senthilkumar Kailasam and Manju Bansal. Insights Into Nucleo-cytoplasmic Transport of tRNA by Exportin-t. Manuscript under review. List of manuscripts that are being prepared from the work reported in Chapter 3 in this thesis. 1 Asmita Gupta and Manju Bansal. The role of sequence effects on altering the un-folding pathway of an RNA pseudoknot: a steered molecular dynamics study. Manuscript in preparation. 2 Asmita Gupta and Manju Bansal. Molecular basis for nucleocytoplasmic transport of tRNA by Exportin-t. Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, May;33 Suppl 1:59-60, 2015

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Chapter 3 Groundnut Bud Necrosis Virus (GBNV) is a tripartite ambisense RNA plant virus that belongs to serogroup IV of Tospovirus genus. Non-Structural protein-m (NSm), which functions as movement protein in tospoviruses, is encoded by the M RNA. In this chapter, we demonstrate that despite the absence of any putative transmembrane domain, GBNV NSm associates with membranes when expressed in E. coli as well as in N. benthamiana. Incubation of refolded NSm with liposomes ranging in size from 200-250 nm resulted in changes in the secondary and tertiary structure of NSm. A similar behaviour was observed in the presence of anionic and zwitterionic detergents. Furthermore, the morphology of the liposomes was found to be modified in the presence of NSm. Deletion of coiled coil domain resulted in the inability of in planta expressed NSm to interact with membranes. Further, when the C-terminal coiled coil domain alone was expressed, it was found to be associated with membrane. These results demonstrate that NSm associates with membranes via the C-terminal coiled coil domain and such an association may be important for movement of viral RNA from cell to cell. Further NSm was shown to be phosphorylated by N. benthamiana and tomato crude sap as observed in other movement proteins. Chapter 4 This chapter deals with localization of NSm to PD and identification of domain involved in localization. For this purpose NSm and its mutants were cloned in pEAQ:GFP vector and transiently expressed in N. benthamiana by infiltration of transformed Agrobacteria. The GFP tagged NSm was visualized by confocal microscopy. The results demonstrated that NSm forms punctate structures and localizes to PD as confirmed by colocalization of mCherry: PDLP1a, a PD marker which resides in PD, with GFP:NSm. To find out the domain involved in PD localization, sequential deletion mutants were made. It was found that C-terminal domain is involved in PD localization. On the other hand, N-terminal unfolded region was dispensable for PD localization. This is the first report of a coiled coil domain shown to be involved in PD localization. It has also been demonstrated that GBNV NSm interacts with NP. Further, membrane floatation assay carried in presence of NP suggested that interaction of NSm and NP affected membrane association of NSm. These results were further confirmed by localization studies of NSm in presence of NP. It was found that there was considerable relocalization of both NSm and NP. NSm was observed to be present in cytoplasm as well as on the membrane. At the same time, NP was observed on membrane apart from being present in the cytoplasm. When N-terminal 50 amino acids (unfolded) region of NSm was deleted and colocalization studies were carried out, it was found that NSm and NP do not colocalize, suggesting that NSm interacts with NP via the unfolded region and helps in the relocalization of NP to the membrane. Chapter 5 This chapter deals with the pathway of targeting NSm to PD. To decipher the pathway, followed by NSm, an inhibitor of endomembrane or vesicle mediated transport, Brefeldin A (BFA) was used. When GFP-NSm was expressed it was observed to form punctate structure at PD as before. Upon treatment with BFA, green islands were observed in the cytoplasm suggesting that ER was involved in targeting NSm to PD. Similarly, LatB, inhibitor of actin mediated targeting of protein to membrane, also abrogated the localization of NSm to PD. In order to further understand the role of ER in targeting NSm to PD, an ER marker, ER-GFP (GFP fused to HDEL peptide that directs it to ER) was coexpressed with GBNV NSm fused to mCherry. It was observed that NSm colocalizes with ER-GFP as yellow puncta on PD. The puncta appeared as patches and the whole ER-network was converted to vesicles. This was further confirmed by coexpressing ER-GFP with NSm without any tag. The green fluorescent vesicles were observed preferentially near cell membrane. To delineate the region of NSm involved in vesicle formation, point mutants and deletion mutants of NSm were generated without the tag and coexpressed with ER-GFP. When N-terminal 203 amino acids were deleted, NSm was able to transform ER membranes to vesicles suggesting that these residues are dispensable for vesicle formation. Interestingly, the deletion of coiled coil domain leads to cytosolic location of NSm. Furthermore, the C-terminal coiled coil domain when expressed alone was capable of inducing vesicle formation. This is the first report of involvement of such a domain in ER membrane association and vesicle formation.